Figure 1:
![The learning behavior of the Quantized CNN model. From [12].](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/67971ede082aa65dea3db022/j_joeb-2025-0019_fig_001.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKGOQQI7OO%2F20260109%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260109T011149Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEMv%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FwEaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJHMEUCIA7d4YF6AI2%2B230tngo7cfZEUeGZw%2FpEJn%2F%2BZpqcHEZWAiEAgB3D94wsNTezP%2FnW9b8poswN5aH9Wso%2BAUGU5uquVesqxgUIlP%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FARACGgw5NjMxMzQyODk5NDAiDHGzOJb%2BUBWNi2RM6CqaBTdo86n9OIwbmepCqoR6wZM3mkNnqWB7TxOf%2BFbFORZavvGN7W2J0FpPgOa2pkrdhiUaNrd9tnDgg4IFYwxp4aYIodB44WOkSlFuv4Fpqxdyzvdz%2FCP9XpgRojtUnzwhKV9sj4VjGT9wXBvarufDXU0pObVn6VAlIIDXwWtqa6VGEBBFNju%2B3sNExGe08%2FSupyUWirNw0u4C8Gi8%2BwnRf2WouMOX4M6YYw%2FudeF4as%2FiJTz2zHxuH0jYKV5txGlK3U5jJDStmNKM49Y0f5yrIc2f3nOE8HJQQTyA12VlRRbEl%2BEY7iS7SqNm0kd%2Bk%2BM5GrGOqFuRjTIWxSYDTr4UqpXI3r9%2BC%2BofKnY4VcLDeybq2PZ%2BL127qmeZOzJaMbzHHAabTYYmwnVwKYkO51iLrKpadsxKq5qbKWJOivddGzzDNIQ1TW%2BtXo9F4V9cVhgVXxlEkaUhE5dcKsgsJ%2BN8H5BGdBNpgJUtV%2FhkjmDVSaH5u9DIKb3x%2FVorbBkIhzPHLG8nb2xBqNiV5fyQpHoPbbFTQ1b1e6yovBd%2BVLemyPG1RML56I8FMYMW2vcIgzQq%2Fgfg3e2fPspDPYtzc1mHsmeCRkUiDabt%2Fic9TchFwkuoGm47pskve5bO1aJdKCqfsXdlikqHzDP097LWXEQJOdqnOF6Zd4F6QTva4XFvkMzU08E%2BqE981X2PDVA6u%2FXW5wWjrEB4Ictesnn2Iqm8pKlb7Dlcl9gtnmPT83qJIk5g%2FpbUMA1Y4bbp0jJBMgNmgFbwRnoiOH22gg8h8z%2FM7523VCiSlNqhlHoJwRou1OhQNgd3CX6Td2jcDgS079xcQ7xHoPNFBjN5FrzaHDTz2Cf1G2ZOl6OlXg%2BE9F8F6ahKXrLP6TA3YPrcjTCLhoDLBjqxAe7i0gajanxcX4bQMiWNTd8FKMJgDcdjeOxFPi9kJSLloGf9JUrug%2FaHfvIu9nfpttO9HZUy%2FI31WzqF5QiqZd8g7RiYcHeV9Hp82r4Q1700jBABB8FC9XSsQD%2BtZ2mn1jKTbdnxuK1GI%2FCc69dCFvZBQZppOcsIl3%2FLZ5xkP8Ex2D34gRo8TwcbWRY5Vpt1h4hqDFTpGxzczzFB4rq4P3jIVnobg5xSM0O7Z6KVW5NRyw%3D%3D&X-Amz-Signature=ebd6295677d443c5328fce45d6b82bb159f4a1c050271ac6e9474dcd1e48433d&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Figure 2:
![Quantized CNN training and testing prediction compared to the true values. From [12].](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/67971ede082aa65dea3db022/j_joeb-2025-0019_fig_002.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKGOQQI7OO%2F20260109%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260109T011149Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEMv%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FwEaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJHMEUCIA7d4YF6AI2%2B230tngo7cfZEUeGZw%2FpEJn%2F%2BZpqcHEZWAiEAgB3D94wsNTezP%2FnW9b8poswN5aH9Wso%2BAUGU5uquVesqxgUIlP%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FARACGgw5NjMxMzQyODk5NDAiDHGzOJb%2BUBWNi2RM6CqaBTdo86n9OIwbmepCqoR6wZM3mkNnqWB7TxOf%2BFbFORZavvGN7W2J0FpPgOa2pkrdhiUaNrd9tnDgg4IFYwxp4aYIodB44WOkSlFuv4Fpqxdyzvdz%2FCP9XpgRojtUnzwhKV9sj4VjGT9wXBvarufDXU0pObVn6VAlIIDXwWtqa6VGEBBFNju%2B3sNExGe08%2FSupyUWirNw0u4C8Gi8%2BwnRf2WouMOX4M6YYw%2FudeF4as%2FiJTz2zHxuH0jYKV5txGlK3U5jJDStmNKM49Y0f5yrIc2f3nOE8HJQQTyA12VlRRbEl%2BEY7iS7SqNm0kd%2Bk%2BM5GrGOqFuRjTIWxSYDTr4UqpXI3r9%2BC%2BofKnY4VcLDeybq2PZ%2BL127qmeZOzJaMbzHHAabTYYmwnVwKYkO51iLrKpadsxKq5qbKWJOivddGzzDNIQ1TW%2BtXo9F4V9cVhgVXxlEkaUhE5dcKsgsJ%2BN8H5BGdBNpgJUtV%2FhkjmDVSaH5u9DIKb3x%2FVorbBkIhzPHLG8nb2xBqNiV5fyQpHoPbbFTQ1b1e6yovBd%2BVLemyPG1RML56I8FMYMW2vcIgzQq%2Fgfg3e2fPspDPYtzc1mHsmeCRkUiDabt%2Fic9TchFwkuoGm47pskve5bO1aJdKCqfsXdlikqHzDP097LWXEQJOdqnOF6Zd4F6QTva4XFvkMzU08E%2BqE981X2PDVA6u%2FXW5wWjrEB4Ictesnn2Iqm8pKlb7Dlcl9gtnmPT83qJIk5g%2FpbUMA1Y4bbp0jJBMgNmgFbwRnoiOH22gg8h8z%2FM7523VCiSlNqhlHoJwRou1OhQNgd3CX6Td2jcDgS079xcQ7xHoPNFBjN5FrzaHDTz2Cf1G2ZOl6OlXg%2BE9F8F6ahKXrLP6TA3YPrcjTCLhoDLBjqxAe7i0gajanxcX4bQMiWNTd8FKMJgDcdjeOxFPi9kJSLloGf9JUrug%2FaHfvIu9nfpttO9HZUy%2FI31WzqF5QiqZd8g7RiYcHeV9Hp82r4Q1700jBABB8FC9XSsQD%2BtZ2mn1jKTbdnxuK1GI%2FCc69dCFvZBQZppOcsIl3%2FLZ5xkP8Ex2D34gRo8TwcbWRY5Vpt1h4hqDFTpGxzczzFB4rq4P3jIVnobg5xSM0O7Z6KVW5NRyw%3D%3D&X-Amz-Signature=39008f70ab49005faf52cce7d7cfe436a7346ad8b567e763c272f9150a544557&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Model performance on test data_
| Model Type | Min MAE | Min MSE | Min MAPE | R2 | Epochs |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ANN | 0.8158 | 2.8870 | 1.1486 | 0.9973 | 1000 |
| CNN (2D) | 0.8559 | 1.3776 | 0.9822 | 0.9998 | 1000 |
| Quantized CNN | 1.4768 | 10.9771 | 1.8820 | 0.9962 | 1000 |
| CNN2SNN | 49.4009 | N/A | N/A | −0.6259 | N/A |