Figure 1
The effect of the factual presence of Muslim minorities in European societies on the average support for a Muslim ban
Source: European Social Survey 2014 and PEW Research 2011. Own figure.
Table 1
Operationalization
| Theoretical Construct | Item | Original Scale | New Scale |
|---|---|---|---|
| Islamophobia | Allow many or few Muslims to come and live in country | 1 = Allow many to come and live here 4 = Allow none | 1 = Allow none (...) 0 = Allow many to come and live here |
| Contact with migrants | Different race or ethnic group: contact, how often | 1 = Never 7 = Every day | We constructed an additive index: 1 = Much contact, many friends, good perception of contact (...) 0 = No contact, no friends, bad perception or contacts |
| Different race or ethnic group: have any close friends | 1 = Yes, several 2 = Yes, a few 3 = No, none at all | ||
| Different race or ethnic group: contact, how bad or good | 0 = Extremely bad 10 = Extremely good | ||
| Nationalism | Feel close to country | 1 = Very close 4 = Not close at all | 1 = Very close (...) 0 = Not close at all |
| Religiosity | Belonging to particular re-ligion or denomination | l=Yes 2 = No | We constructed an additive index: 1 = Highly religious person (...) 0 = Not religious at all |
| How religious are you | 0 = Not religious at all 10 = Very religious | ||
| How often attend religious services apart from special occasions | 1 = Every day 7 = Never | ||
| Realistic threat perception | Immigrants take jobs away in country or create new jobs | 0 = Take jobs away 10 = Create new jobs | We constructed an additive index: 1 = High realistic threat perception (...) 0 = No realistic threat perceptions |
| Taxes and services: immigrants take out more than they put in or less | 0 = Generally take out more 10 = Generally put in more | ||
| Immigrants make country's crime problems worse or better | 0 = Crime problems made worse 10 = Crime problems made better | ||
| Immigration bad or good for country's economy | 0 = Bad for economy 10 = Good for the economy | ||
| Symbolic threat perception | Immigrants make country worse or better place to live | 0 = Worse place to live 10 = Better place to live | We constructed an additive index: 1 = High symbolic threat perception (...) 0 = No symbolic threat perception |
| Country's cultural life undermined or enriched by immigrants | 0 = Cultural life undermined 10 = Cultural life enriched | ||
| Religious beliefs and practices undermined or enriched by immigrants | 0 = Religious beliefs and practices undermined 10 = Religious beliefs and practices enriched | ||
| Ethnocentrism | Some cultures: much better or all equal | 1 = Some cultures are much better than others 2 = All cultures are equal | We constructed an additive index: 1 = Ethnocentric world view (...) 0 = No ethnocentric worldview |
| Some races or ethnic groups: born less intelligent | 1 = Yes 2 = No | ||
| Some races or ethnic groups: born harder working | 1 = Yes 2 = No | ||
| Collective deprivation | Compared to yourself government treats new immigrants better or worse | 1 = Much better 5 = Much worse | 1 = Much better (...) 0 = Much worse |
| Education | Highest level of education | 1 = Less than lower secondary 7 = Higher tertiary education | 1 = Higher tertiary education (...) 0 = Less than lower secondary |
| Gender | Gender | 1 = Male 2 = Female | 1 = Female 0 = Male |
| Age | Age of respondent, calculated | Age in years | 1 = Oldest respondent (...) 0 = Youngest respondent |
[i] Source: ESS 2014. Own figure.
Table 2
Individual-level predictors of Islamophobia
| Dependent Variable: Support for a Muslim ban | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Region | Eastern Eu rope | Scandinavia | |||||||
| Country | CZE | EST | HUN | LTU | SVN | POL | DNK | FIN | SWF |
| Contact with | -.15*** | -.07* | -.05 | -.18*** | -.18*** | -.12* | -.17*** | -.21*** | -.08** |
| migrants | (.05) | (.04) | (.05) | (.05) | (.05) | (.07) | (.04) | (.3) | (.03) |
| Nationalism | -.04 | .04 | .02 | .06 | -.02 | .06 | .06* | .04 | -.04 |
| (.04) | (0.4) | (.04) | (.05) | (.04) | (.06) | (.03) | (.03) | (.03) | |
| Religiosity | -.05* | -.03 | .01 | .03 | .04 | .07 | .03 | .04* | -.01 |
| (.03) | (.03) | (.03) | (.05) | (.03) | (.05) | (.03) | (.03) | (.02) | |
| Realistic threat | .30*** | .28*** | .40*** | .22*** | .20** | .21* | .24*** | .48*** | .46*** |
| percention | (.06) | (.07) | (.07) | (.10) | (.08) | (.11) | (.06) | (.05) | (.06) |
| Symbolic threat | .34*** | .41*** | .26*** | .58*** | .64*** | .55*** | .63*** | .46*** | .50*** |
| perception | (.06) | (.06) | (.07) | (.09) | (.07) | (.10) | (.05) | (.05) | (.05) |
| Ethnocentrism | .08*** | .16*** | .11*** | .08*** | .08** | .16*** | .10*** | .14*** | .06** |
| (.01) | (.02) | (.02) | (.03) | (.03) | (.04) | (.02) | (.02) | (.03) | |
| Collective | .05 | .01 | .13*** | .11* | .01 | .16** | .13*** | .09*** | .07*** |
| deprivation | (.04) | (.05) | (.04) | (.06) | (.05) | (.06) | (.03) | (.03) | (.03) |
| Education | -.02 | -.08** | -.04 | -.10** | -.08* | -.03 | .01 | -.05*** | -.08*** |
| (.03) | (.03) | (.03) | (.04) | (.05) | (.04) | (.02) | (.02) | (.02) | |
| Gender | .03** | .02 | .01 | -.02 | -.02 | -.01 | -.01 | -.01 | -.01 |
| (.01) | (.02) | (.01) | (.02) | (.02) | (.02) | (.01) | (.01) | (.01) | |
| Age | .04 | .44*** | .03 | .07 | .15*** | .04 | .17*** | .23*** | .10*** |
| (.03) | (.04) | (.04) | (.06) | (.04) | (.06) | (.03) | (.02) | (.03) | |
| Constant | .40*** | .13*** | .29*** | .23*** | .11 | .08 | -.06 | .01 | -.05 |
| (.06) | (.05) | (.06) | (.07) | (.07) | (.10) | (.05) | (.04) | (.04) | |
| R-Squared | .23 | .35 | .31 | .28 | .38 | .26 | .46 | .45 | .47 |
| Observations | 1.114 | 997 | 698 | 671 | 594 | 430 | 1.077 | 1.599 | 1.180 |
| Region | Western Europe | Mediterranean Countries | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Country | AUT | BET | DEU | FRA | GBR | IRL | NLD | ESP | POR |
| Contact with | -.15*** | -.25*** | -.15*** | -.17*** | -.14*** | -.19*** | -.10*** | -.20*** | -.09* |
| migrants | (.04) | (.04) | (.03) | (.04) | (.03) | (.05) | (.04) | (.04) | (.05) |
| Nationalism | -.03 | -.02 | .04** | .03 | -.01 | -.09** | .01 | .07** | .03 |
| (.04) | (.03) | (.02) | (.03) | (.02) | (.04) | (.03) | (.03) | (.04) | |
| Religiosity | .08*** | .04* | -.03* | .01 | -.01 | .10*** | .06*** | .06* | .11*** |
| (.03) | (.02) | (.01) | (.02) | (.02) | (.03) | (.02) | (.03) | (.03) | |
| Realistic threat | .36*** | .48*** | .35*** | .24*** | .35*** | .29*** | .51*** | .45*** | .25*** |
| Perception | (.08) | (.06) | (.04) | (.06) | (.06) | (.07) | (.07) | (.07) | (.08) |
| Symbolic threat | .51*** | .43*** | .51*** | .44*** | .45*** | .37*** | .52*** | .46*** | .44*** |
| perception | (.07) | (.05) | (.04) | (.05) | (.05) | (.06) | (.06) | (.06) | (.07) |
| Ethnocentrism | .05** | .09*** | .11*** | .14*** | .06*** | .09*** | .06** | .10*** | .12*** |
| (.02) | (021) | (.02) | (.02) | (.02) | (.02) | (.03) | (.03) | (.05) | |
| Collective | .19*** | .07** | .09*** | .10*** | .15*** | .04 | .16*** | .11*** | .12*** |
| deprivation | (.04) | (.03) | (.02) | (.03) | (.03) | (.03) | (.03) | (.04) | (.03) |
| Education | -.06* | -.07*** | -.05*** | -.08*** | -.02 | -.07** | -.08*** | -.07*** | -.07*** |
| (.03) | (.02) | (.02) | (.02) | (.02) | (.03) | (.02) | (.02) | (.03) | |
| Gender | -.01 | .04*** | .02* | .01 | .02* | -.01 | .01 | .03 | .03* |
| (.01) | (.01) | (.01) | (.01) | (.01) | (.01) | (.01) | (.02) | (.01) | |
| Age | -.01 | .08*** | .07*** | .06** | .08** | .11** | -.03 | .04 | .07 |
| (.03) | (.03) | (.02) | (.03) | (.03) | (.04) | (.03) | (.05) | (.04) | |
| Constant | .03 | .07 | -.06 | .07 | -.01 | .26*** | -.06 | .01 | .04 |
| (.06) | (.05) | (.04) | (.05) | (.04) | (.06) | (.05) | (.06) | (.07) | |
| R-Squared | .45 | .43 | .44 | .42 | .44 | .28 | .37 | .40 | .34 |
| Observations | 938 | 1.297 | 2.099 | 1.332 | 1.466 | 1.196 | 1.296 | 958 | 747 |
[i] Source: ESS 2014. Note: Entries are unstandardized regression coefficients based on robust standard errors, with T-ratios in parentheses. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. Own figure.
Figure 2
The effect of contacts on the average support for a Muslim ban
Source: European Social Survey 2014. Own figure.
Table 3
Societal-level predictors of Islamophobia
| Effects on the support for a Muslimban: standardized Beta-coefficients | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Effect of left-hand side predictor without control | Effect of left-hand predictor controlled for contacts with migrants | Effect of contacts with migrants controlled for left-hand side predictor | |
| Contact with migrants | -.88*** | ||
| Share of Muslim population | -.77*** | -.30* | -.67*** |
| Nationalism | .11 | -.50 | -.94*** |
| Religiosity | .13 | .06 | -.87*** |
| Realistic threat perceptions | .66*** | .23 | -.74*** |
| Symbolic threat perceptions | .63*** | .29** | -.74*** |
| Ethnocentrism | .52** | .17 | -.80*** |
| Collective deprivation | .54** | .31***- | .79*** |
[i] Source: ESS 2014 & PEW 2011. Note: * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01