References
- P N, R N, B V, S R, A S. COVID-19: Invasion, pathogenesis and possible cure - A review. J Virol Methods. 2022;300:114434. doi: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2021.114434.
- Chooi YC, Ding C, Magkos F. The epidemiology of obesity. Metabolism. 2019;92:6–10. doi: 10.1016/j.metabol.2018.09.005.
- Andersen CJ, Murphy KE, Fernandez ML. Impact of Obesity and Metabolic Syndrome on Immunity. Adv Nutr. 2016;7(1):66–75. doi: 10.3945/an.115.010207.
- Huang PL. A comprehensive definition for metabolic syndrome. Dis Model Mech. 2009;2(5–6):231–7. doi: 10.1242/dmm.001180.
- Maggio CA, Pi-Sunyer FX. Obesity and type 2 diabetes. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 2003;32(4):805–22, viii. doi: 10.1016/s0889-8529(03)00071-9.
- Ford ES, Williamson DF, Liu S. Weight change and diabetes incidence: findings from a national cohort of US adults. Am J Epidemiol. 1997;146(3):214–22. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a009256.
- Richardson S, Hirsch JS, Narasimhan M, et al. Presenting Characteristics, Comorbidities, and Outcomes Among 5700 Patients Hospitalized With COVID-19 in the New York City Area. JAMA. 2020;323(20):2052–9. doi: 10.1001/jama.2020.6775.
- Popkin BM, Du S, Green WD, et al. Individuals with obesity and COVID-19: A global perspective on the epidemiology and biological relationships. Obes Rev. 2020;21(11):e13128. doi: 10.1111/obr.13128.
- Chiappetta S, Sharma AM, Bottino V, Stier C. COVID-19 and the role of chronic inflammation in patients with obesity. Int J Obes (Lond). 2020;44(8):1790–2. doi: 10.1038/s41366-020-0597-4.
- Stefan N, Birkenfeld AL, Schulze MB, Ludwig DS. Obesity and impaired metabolic health in patients with COVID-19. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2020;16(7):341–2. doi: 10.1038/s41574-020-0364-6.
- Romero Starke K, Reissig D, Petereit-Haack G, Schmauder S, Nienhaus A, Seidler A. The isolated effect of age on the risk of COVID-19 severe outcomes: a systematic review with meta-analysis. BMJ Glob Health. 2021;6(12). doi: 10.1136/bmjgh-2021-006434.
- Zhang JJ, Dong X, Liu GH, Gao YD. Risk and Protective Factors for COVID-19 Morbidity, Severity, and Mortality. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol. 2023;64(1):90–107. doi: 10.1007/s12016-022-08921-5.
- Cai Q, Chen F, Wang T, et al. Obesity and COVID-19 Severity in a Designated Hospital in Shenzhen, China. Diabetes Care. 2020;43(7):1392–8. doi: 10.2337/dc20-0576.
- Goyal P, Choi JJ, Pinheiro LC, et al. Clinical Characteristics of Covid-19 in New York City. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(24):2372–4. doi: 10.1056/NEJMc2010419.
- Palaiodimos L, Kokkinidis DG, Li W, et al. Severe obesity, increasing age and male sex are independently associated with worse in-hospital outcomes, and higher in-hospital mortality, in a cohort of patients with COVID-19 in the Bronx, New York. Metabolism. 2020;108:154262. doi: 10.1016/j.metabol.2020.154262.
- Golubnitschaja O, Liskova A, Koklesova L, et al. Caution, “normal” BMI: health risks associated with potentially masked individual underweight-EPMA Position Paper 2021. EPMA J. 2021;12(3):243–64. doi: 10.1007/s13167-021-00251-4.
- Flegal KM, Graubard BI, Williamson DF, Gail MH. Excess deaths associated with underweight, overweight, and obesity. JAMA. 2005;293(15):1861–7. doi: 10.1001/jama.293.15.1861.
- Morgan OW, Bramley A, Fowlkes A, et al. Morbid obesity as a risk factor for hospitalization and death due to 2009 pandemic influenza A(H1N1) disease. PLoS One. 2010;5(3):e9694. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0009694.
- Honce R, Schultz-Cherry S. Impact of Obesity on Influenza A Virus Pathogenesis, Immune Response, and Evolution. Front Immunol. 2019;10:1071. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.01071.
- de Heredia FP, Gomez-Martinez S, Marcos A. Obesity, inflammation and the immune system. Proc Nutr Soc. 2012;71(2):332–8. doi: 10.1017/S0029665112000092.
- Smith AG, Sheridan PA, Harp JB, Beck MA. Diet-induced obese mice have increased mortality and altered immune responses when infected with influenza virus. J Nutr. 2007;137(5):1236–43. doi: 10.1093/jn/137.5.1236.
- Paich HA, Sheridan PA, Handy J, et al. Overweight and obese adult humans have a defective cellular immune response to pandemic H1N1 influenza A virus. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2013;21(11):2377–86. doi: 10.1002/oby.20383.
- Lonnqvist F, Thorne A, Large V, Arner P. Sex differences in visceral fat lipolysis and metabolic complications of obesity. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1997;17(7):1472–80. doi: 10.1161/01.atv.17.7.1472.
- Ziegler AK, Damgaard A, Mackey AL, et al. An anti-inflammatory phenotype in visceral adipose tissue of old lean mice, augmented by exercise. Sci Rep. 2019;9(1):12069. doi: 10.1038/s41598-019-48587-2.
- Alexopoulos N, Katritsis D, Raggi P. Visceral adipose tissue as a source of inflammation and promoter of atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis. 2014;233(1):104–12. doi: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2013.12.023.
- Battisti S, Pedone C, Napoli N, et al. Computed Tomography Highlights Increased Visceral Adiposity Associated With Critical Illness in COVID-19. Diabetes Care. 2020;43(10):e129–e30. doi: 10.2337/dc20-1333.
- Watanabe M, Caruso D, Tuccinardi D, et al. Visceral fat shows the strongest association with the need of intensive care in patients with COVID-19. Metabolism. 2020;111:154319. doi: 10.1016/j.metabol.2020.154319.
- Dixon AE, Peters U. The effect of obesity on lung function. Expert Rev Respir Med. 2018;12(9):755–67. doi: 10.1080/17476348.2018.1506331.
- Holley HS, Milic-Emili J, Becklake MR, Bates DV. Regional distribution of pulmonary ventilation and perfusion in obesity. J Clin Invest. 1967;46(4):475–81. doi: 10.1172/JCI105549.
- Rivas E, Arismendi E, Agusti A, et al. Ventilation/Perfusion distribution abnormalities in morbidly obese subjects before and after bariatric surgery. Chest. 2015;147(4):1127–34. doi: 10.1378/chest.14-1749.
- Zhang W, Wang Y, Li W, Wang J. Association Between Obesity and Short-And Long-Term Mortality in Patients With Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Based on the Berlin Definition. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2020;11:611435. doi: 10.3389/fendo.2020.611435.
- Zhi G, Xin W, Ying W, Guohong X, Shuying L. “Obesity Paradox” in Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome: Asystematic Review and Meta-Analysis. PLoS One. 2016;11(9):e0163677. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0163677.
- Corrales-Medina VF, Valayam J, Serpa JA, Rueda AM, Musher DM. The obesity paradox in community-acquired bacterial pneumonia. Int J Infect Dis. 2011;15(1):e54–7. doi: 10.1016/j.ijid.2010.09.011.
- Kim RY, Glick C, Furmanek S, Ramirez JA, Cavallazzi R. Association between body mass index and mortality in hospitalised patients with community-acquired pneumonia. ERJ Open Res. 2021;7(1). doi: 10.1183/23120541.00736-2020.
- Gao M, Piernas C, Astbury NM, et al. Associations between body-mass index and COVID-19 severity in 6.9 million people in England: a prospective, community-based, cohort study. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2021;9(6):350–9. doi: 10.1016/S2213-8587(21)00089-9.
- Poly TN, Islam MM, Yang HC, et al. Obesity and Mortality Among Patients Diagnosed With COVID-19: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Front Med (Lausanne). 2021;8:620044. doi: 10.3389/fmed.2021.620044.