Skip to main content
Have a personal or library account? Click to login
A mathematical model of HPA axis dynamics and impacts of alcohol consumption Cover

A mathematical model of HPA axis dynamics and impacts of alcohol consumption

Open Access
|May 2026

References

  1. [1]
  2. Drouin J., Sun Y.L., Tremblay S., Lavendar P., Schmidt T.J., de Lean A., Nemer M., Homodimer formation is rate-limiting for high affinity DNA binding by glucocorticoid receptor, Molecular Endocrinology, 6(8), 1299-1309, 1992.
  3. Spencer R.L., Hutchison K.E., Alcohol aging and the stress response, Alcohol Research and Health, 23(4), 272-283, 1999.
  4. Blaine S.K., Milivojevic V., Fox H., Sinha R., Alcohol effects on stress pathways: Impact on craving and relapse risk, The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 61(3), 145-153, 2016.
  5. Sinha R., The role of stress in addiction relapse, Current Psychiatry Reports, 9, 388-395, 2007.
  6. Zakhari S., Overview: How is alcohol metabolized by the body?, Alcohol Research and Health, 29(4), 245-254, 2006.
  7. Setshedi M., Wands J.R., de la Monte S.M., Acetaldehyde adducts in alcoholic liver disease, Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, 3(3), 178-185, 2010.
  8. Wasielewski J.A., Holloway F.A., Alcohol’s interactions with circadian rhythms, Alcohol Research and Health, 25(2), 94-100, 2001.
  9. Barrientos-Gutierrez T., Gimeno D., Mangione T., Harrist R.B., Amick B.C., Drinking social norms and drinking behaviours: a multilevel analysis of 137 workgroups in 16 worksites, Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 64(9), 602-608, 2007.
  10. Quertemont E., Didone V., Role of acetaldehyde in mediating the pharmacological and behavioral effects of alcohol, Alcohol Research and Health, 29(4), 258-265, 2006.
  11. Sriram K., Rodriguez-Fernandez M., Doyle III F., Modeling cortisol dynamics in the Neuro-endocrine axis distinguishes normal depression and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in humans, PLOS Computational Biology, 8(2), e1002379, 2012.
  12. Cheng X., D’Orsogna M.R., Chou T., Mathematical modeling of depressive disorders: Circadian driving bistability and dynamical transitions, Computational and Structural Biotechnology Journal, 19, 664-690, 2021.
  13. Rocşoreanu C., Georgescu A., Giurgițeanu N., The FitzHugh-Nagumo Model: Bifurcation and Dynamics, Springer, USA, 2000.
  14. Nicolaides N.C., Charmandari E., Chrousos G.P., Kino T., Circadian endocrine rhythms: the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and its actions, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1318(1), 71-80, 2014.
  15. Azmi N.A.S.M., Juliana N., Azmani S., Effendy N.M., Abu I.F., Teng N.I.M.F., Das S., Cortisol on circadian rhythm and its effect on cardiovascular system, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(2), 676, 2021.
  16. MedlinePlus, Aging changes in organs, tissue and cells, National Library of Medicine, 2023, https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/004012.htm, Accessed: December 31, 2023.
  17. Mikneviciute G., Pulopulos M.M., Allaert J., Armellini A., Rimmele U., Kliegel M., Ballhausen N., Adult age differences in the psychophysiological response to acute stress, Psychoneuroendocrinology, 153, 106111, 2023.
  18. Edwards K.M., Mills P.J., Effects of estrogen versus estrogen and progesterone on cortisol and interleukin-6, Maturitas, 61(4), 330-333, 2008.
  19. Herrera A.Y., Nielsen S.E., Mather M., Stress-induced increases in progesterone and cortisol in naturally cycling women, Neurobiology of Stress, 3, 96-104, 2016.
  20. Yu Z., Jiao Y., Zhao Y., Gu W., Level of estrogen in females-The different impacts at different life stages, Journal of Personalized Medicine, 12(12), 1995, 2022.
  21. Zhu A., Andino J., Daignault-Newton A., Chopra Z., Sarma A., Dupree J.M., What is a normal testosterone level for young men? Rethinking the 300 ng/dL cutoff for testosterone deficiency in men 20-44 years old, The Journal of Urology, 208(6), 1295-1302, 2022.
  22. Knight E.L., Christian C.B., Morales P.J., Harbaugh W.T., Mayr U., Mehta P.H., Exogenous testosterone enhances cortisol and affective responses to social-evaluative stress in dominant men, Psychoneuroendocrinology, 85, 151-157, 2017.
  23. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Age 21 minimum legal drinking age alcohol and public health, https://www.cdc.gov/alcohol/underage-drinking/minimum-legal-drinking-age.html?CDC_//www.cdc.gov/alcohol/fact-sheets/minimum-legal-drinking-age.htm, Accessed: December 31, 2024.
  24. Washington State Patrol, Widmark’s equation, https://wsp.wa.gov/breathtest/docs/webdms/Studies_Articles/Widmarks/%20Equation/%2003-07-2002.pdf, Accessed: December 31, 2002.
  25. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, What is a standard drink?, https://www.niaaa.nih.gov/alcohols-effects-health/overview-alcohol-consumption/what-standard-drink#:~:text=In%20the%20United%20States%2C%20one,is%20typically%20about%2012%25%20alcohol, Accessed: December 31, 2024.
  26. Cederbaum A.I., Alcohol metabolism, Clinics in Liver Disease, 16(4), 667-685, 2012.
  27. Badrick E., Bobak M., Britton A., Kirschbaum C., Marmot M., Kumari M., The relationship between alcohol consumption and cortisol secretion in an aging cohort, The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 93(3), 750-757, 2008.
  28. Kim L.U., D’Orsogna M.R., Chou T., Onset timing and exposure therapy of stress disorders: mechanistic insight from a mathematical model of oscillating neuroendocrine dynamics, Biology Direct, 11(13), 1-18, 2016.
  29. Kim L.U., D’Orsogna M.R., Chou T., Perturbing the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis: a mathematical model for interpreting PTSD assessment tests, Computational Psychiatry, 2, 28-49, 2017.
  30. Walker J.J., Terry J.R., Lightman S.L., Origin of ultradian pulsatility in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, Proceedings of The Royal Society B Biological Science, 277(1688), 1627-1633, 2010.
  31. Bowling Green State University, Alcohol metabolism, https://www.bgsu.edu/recwell/wellness-connection/alcohol-education/alcohol-metabolism.html#:~:text=How%20Fast%20Can%20You%20Sober,level%20by%200.015%20per%20hour., Accessed: December 31, 2024.
  32. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Body measurements (National Center for Health Statistics), (2015-2018), https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/body-measurements.htm, Accessed: December 31, 2024.
  33. University of Toledo, Blood alcohol content, https://www.utoledo.edu/studentaffairs/counseling/selfhelp/substanceuse/bac.html#:~:text=Blood%20Alcohol%20Content%20(BAC)%20is,alcohol%20is%202%2C100:1)., Accessed: December 31, 2024.
  34. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, College drinking, https://www.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/brochures-and-fact-sheets/college-drinking, Accessed: December 31, 2024.
  35. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Drinking levels, https://www.niaaa.nih.gov/alcohol-health/overview-alcohol-consumption/moderate-binge-drinking, Accessed: December 31, 2024.
  36. Herman J.P., McKlveen J.M., Ghosal S., Kopp B.E., Wulsin A., Makino R., Donahue A.L., Regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical stress response, Comprehensive Physiology, 6(2), 665-706, 2016.
  37. Meaney M.J., Aitken D.H., van Berkel C., Bhatnagar S., Sapolsky R.M., Effect of neonatal handling on age-related impairments associated with the hippocampus, Science, 239(4841), 766-768, 1988.
  38. Sapolsky R.M., Krey L.C., McEwen B.S., The neuroendocrinology of stress and aging: The glucocorticoid cascade hypothesis, Endocrine Reviews, 7(3), 284-301, 1986.
  39. Sapolsky R.M., Stress, the aging brain, and the mechanisms of neuron death, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1992.
  40. Hill A.V., The possible effects of the aggregation of the molecules of haemoglobin on its dissociation curves, The Journal of Physiology, 40(4), iv-vii, 1910.
  41. Pruessner J.C., Hellhammer D.H., Kirschbaum C., Resistance to dexamethasone suppression in the elderly: A neuroendocrine model of aging, Neurobiology of Aging, 20(3), 283-291, 1999.
  42. Herman J.P., Cullinan W.E., Neurocircuitry of stress: central control of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis, Trends in Neurosciences, 20(2), 78-84, 1997.
  43. Dedovic K., D’Aguiar C., Pruessner J.C., What stress does to your brain: A review of neuroimaging studies, Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 54(1), 6-15, 2009.
  44. Krueger P.M., Friedman E.M., One nation, two clocks: Time zone limits and sleep duration, Sleep, 32(5), 599-605, 2009.
  45. Weitzman E.D., The human circadian system: an overview, Progress in Clinical and Biological Research, 110, 221-235, 1982.
  46. NCHS, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Body Measurements, 2021.
  47. O’Byrne N.A., Yuen F., Butt W.Z., Liu P.Y., Sleep and circadian regulation of cortisol: A short review, Current Opinion in Endocrine and Metabolic Research, 18, 178-186, 2021.
  48. Verster J.C., Arnoldy L., Benson S., Scholey A., Stock A.K., The alcohol hangover research group: Ten years of progress in research on the causes, consequences, and treatment of the alcohol hangover, Journal of Clinical Medicine, 9(11), 3670, 2020.
  49. Couto-Moraes R., Palmero-Neto J., Markus R.P., The immune-pineal axis, Neuroimmunomodulation: From Fundamental Biology to Therapy, 1153(1), 193-202, 2009.
  50. Moore S.C., Wood A.M., Moore L., Shepherd J., Murphy S., Brown G.D.A., A rank based social norms model of how people judge their levels of drunkenness whilst intoxicated, BMC Public Health, 16(798), 1-8, 2016.
  51. Lovallo W.R., Whitsett T.L., al’ Absi M., Sung B.H., Vincent A.S., Wilson M.F., Aerobic exercise reduces cortisol reactivity to mental stress in the recovery period in men with a family history of hypertension, Psychophysiology, 43(1), 58-66, 2006.
  52. Wong J.A., Pickworth W.B., Water A.J., alߣAbsi M., Leventhal A.M., Cortisol levels decrease after acute tobacco abstinence in regular smokers
Language: English
Page range: 77 - 106
Submitted on: Nov 23, 2024
Accepted on: May 8, 2025
Published on: May 27, 2026
Published by: Harran University
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services
Publication frequency: 2 issues per year

© 2026 Matthew Gergley, Vinodh Chellamuthu, published by Harran University
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.