Who is Most Vulnerable? Exploring Job Vulnerability, Social Distancing and Demand During COVID-19

Johnston, Richard; Hogg, Ryan; Miller, Kristel

doi:10.2478/ijm-2021-0011

Figures & Tables

Vulnerable jobs by occupation, two metre and one metre social distancing requirements: Top ten occupations, NI, June 2020Note: Figure 2 illustrates vulnerability reduction from 260,000 to 230,000 jobs including both social distancing and demand reductions

Vulnerable jobs by sector, two metre and one metre social distancing requirements: Top ten sectors, NI, June 2020

Reduction in job vulnerabilities as a result of reducing social distancing requirements from 2-metre to 1-metre: Top ten occupations, June 2020, NI.Please note that figure 4 illustrates vulnerability reduction from 260,000 to 230,000 jobs when including both social distancing and demand reductions.

Reduction in job vulnerabilities as a result of reducing social distancing requirements from 2-metre to 1-metre: Top ten sectors, NI, June 2020

Top 10 vulnerable occupations by impact at 1-metre and 2-metre social distancing, June 2020, NI

Top 10 vulnerable sectors by impact at 1-metre and 2-metre social distancing, June 2020, NI

Job vulnerability by qualification level

Reduction in job vulnerability by share of qualifications below level 2 NQF, central scenario

Vulnerable jobs by salary band: 1-metre and 2-metre social distancing requirements

Top 10 vulnerable occupations by full-time, part-time

Top 10 vulnerable sectors by full-time, part-time

Vulnerable jobs by council area as share of employment at both 2-metre and 1-metre social distancing

Reduction in vulnerable jobs as share of total by council area

Baseline demand impacts, on the basis of a central scenario, accounting for demand at one metre social distancing, two metre social distancing and whether the job is carried out on a part-time or full-time basis

Social Distance Requirement	2-metres		1-metre
Sector	FT	PT	FT	PT
01 Crop and animal production, hunting and related service activities	0%	0%	0%	0%

02 Forestry and logging	0%	0%	0%	0%

03 Fishing and aquaculture	0%	0%	0%	0%

05 Mining of coal and lignite	−25%	−25%	−25%	−25%

06 Extraction of crude petroleum and natural gas	−25%	−25%	−25%	−25%

07 Mining of metal ores	−25%	−25%	−25%	−25%

08 Other mining and quarrying	−25%	−25%	−25%	−25%

09 Mining support service activities	−25%	−25%	−25%	−25%

10 Manufacture of food products	5%	10%	5%	10%

11 Manufacture of beverages	5%	10%	5%	10%

12 Manufacture of tobacco products	−40%	−40%	−40%	−40%

13 Manufacture of textiles	−40%	−40%	−40%	−40%

14 Manufacture of wearing apparel	−40%	−40%	−40%	−40%

15 Manufacture of leather and related products	−40%	−40%	−40%	−40%

16 Manufacture of wood and of products of wood and cork, except furniture; manufacture of articles of straw and plaiting materials	−40%	−40%	−40%	−40%

17 Manufacture of paper and paper products	−40%	−40%	−40%	−40%

18 Printing and reproduction of recorded media	−40%	−40%	−40%	−40%

19 Manufacture of coke and refined petroleum products	−40%	−40%	−40%	−40%

20 Manufacture of chemicals and chemical products	−40%	−40%	−40%	−40%

21 Manufacture of basic pharmaceutical products and pharmaceutical preparations	−40%	−40%	−40%	−40%

22 Manufacture of rubber and plastic products	−40%	−40%	−40%	−40%

23 Manufacture of other non-metallic mineral products	−40%	−40%	−40%	−40%

24 Manufacture of basic metals	−40%	−40%	−40%	−40%

25 Manufacture of fabricated metal products, except machinery and equipment	−40%	−40%	−40%	−40%

26 Manufacture of computer, electronic and optical products	−40%	−40%	−40%	−40%

27 Manufacture of electrical equipment	−40%	−40%	−40%	−40%

28 Manufacture of machinery and equipment n.e.c.	−40%	−40%	−40%	−40%

29 Manufacture of motor vehicles, trailers and semi-trailers	−40%	−40%	−40%	−40%

30 Manufacture of other transport equipment	−40%	−40%	−40%	−40%

31 Manufacture of furniture	−40%	−40%	−40%	−40%

32 Other manufacturing	−40%	−40%	−40%	−40%

33 Repair and installation of machinery and equipment	−40%	−40%	−40%	−40%

35 Electricity, gas, steam and air conditioning supply	−5%	−5%	−5%	−5%

36 Water collection, treatment and supply	−5%	−5%	−5%	−5%

37 Sewerage	−5%	−5%	−5%	−5%

38 Waste collection, treatment and disposal activities; materials recovery	−5%	−5%	−5%	−5%

39 Remediation activities and other waste management services	−5%	−5%	−5%	−5%

41 Construction of buildings	−30%	−50%	−30%	−50%

42 Civil engineering	−30%	−50%	−30%	−50%

43 Specialised construction activities	−30%	−50%	−30%	−50%

45 Wholesale and retail trade and repair of motor vehicles and motorcycles	−50%	−50%	−50%	−50%

46 Wholesale trade, except of motor vehicles and motorcycles	−50%	−50%	−50%	−50%

47 Retail trade, except of motor vehicles and motorcycles	−50%	−50%	−50%	−50%

48 Wholesale and retail n.o.s.	−50%	−50%	−50%	−50%

49 Land transport and transport via pipelines	−18%	−18%	−18%	−18%

50 Water transport	−18%	−18%	−18%	−18%

51 Air transport	−18%	−18%	−18%	−18%

52 Warehousing and support activities for transportation	−18%	−18%	−18%	−18%

53 Postal and courier activities	−18%	−18%	−18%	−18%

55 Accommodation	−66%	−80%	−40%	−48%

56 Food and beverage service activities	−66%	−80%	−40%	−48%

58 Publishing activities	−20%	−20%	−12%	−12%

59 Motion picture, video and television programme production, sound recording and music publishing activities	−20%	−20%	−12%	−12%

60 Programming and broadcasting activities	−20%	−40%	−20%	−40%

61 Telecommunications	−20%	−20%	−20%	−20%

62 Computer programming, consultancy and related activities	−20%	−20%	−20%	−20%

63 Information service activities	−20%	−20%	−20%	−20%

64 Financial service activities, except insurance and pension funding	−5%	−5%	−5%	−5%

65 Insurance, reinsurance and pension funding, except compulsory social security	−5%	−5%	−5%	−5%

66 Activities auxiliary to financial services and insurance activities	−5%	−5%	−5%	−5%

68 Real estate activities	−40%	−40%	−40%	−40%

69 Legal and accounting activities	−10%	−10%	−10%	−10%

70 Activities of head offices; management consultancy activities	−10%	−10%	−10%	−10%

71 Architectural and engineering activities; technical testing and analysis	−10%	−10%	−10%	−10%

72 Scientific research and development	−10%	−10%	−10%	−10%

73 Advertising and market research	−10%	−10%	−10%	−10%

74 Other professional; scientific and technical activities	−10%	−10%	−10%	−10%

75 Veterinary activities	−10%	−10%	−10%	−10%

77 Rental and leasing activities	−20%	−40%	−20%	−40%

78 Employment activities	−20%	−40%	−20%	−40%

79 Travel agency, tour operator and other reservation service and related activities	−20%	−40%	−20%	−40%

80 Security and investigation activities	−20%	−20%	−20%	−20%

81 Services to buildings and landscape activities	−20%	−20%	−20%	−20%

82 Office administrative, office support and other business support activities	−20%	−40%	−20%	−40%

84 Public administration and defence; compulsory social security	0%	0%	0%	0%

85 Education	−5%	−5%	−5%	−5%

86 Human health activities	10%	15%	10%	15%

87 Residential care activities	10%	15%	10%	15%

88 Social work activities without accommodation	10%	15%	10%	15%

90 Creative, arts and entertainment activities	−45%	−45%	−27%	−27%

91 Libraries, archives, museums and other cultural activities	−45%	−45%	−27%	−27%

92 Gambling and betting activities	−45%	−45%	−27%	−27%

93 Sports activities and amusement and recreation activities	−45%	−45%	−27%	−27%

94 Activities of membership organisations	−40%	−40%	−24%	−24%

95 Repair of computers and personal and household goods	−40%	−40%	−24%	−24%

96 Other personal service activities	−40%	−40%	−24%	−24%

97 Activities of households as employers of domestic personnel	−50%	−50%	−30%	−30%

98 Undifferentiated goods- and services-producing activities of private households for own use	−50%	−50%	−30%	−30%

99 Activities of extraterritorial organisations and bodies	−30%	−30%	−18%	−18%

Baseline Social Distancing impacts, by occupation_ 1m Social Distancing

Occupation	Risk level
Chief executives and senior officials	Low
Elected officers and representatives	Low
Production managers and directors in manufacturing	Low
Production managers and directors in construction	Low
Production managers and directors in mining and energy	Low
Financial managers and directors	Low
Marketing and sales directors	Low
Purchasing managers and directors	Low
Advertising and public relations directors	Low
Human resource managers and directors	Low
Information technology and telecommunications directors	Low
Functional managers and directors n.e.c.	Low
Financial institution managers and directors	Low
Managers and directors in transport and distribution	Low
Managers and directors in storage and warehousing	Low
Officers in armed forces	High
Senior police officers	High
Senior officers in fire, ambulance, prison and related services	High
Health services and public health managers and directors	Medium
Social services managers and directors	High
Managers and directors in retail and wholesale	Low
Managers and proprietors in agriculture and horticulture	Low
Managers and proprietors in forestry, fishing and related services	Low
Hotel and accommodation managers and proprietors	Medium
Restaurant and catering establishment managers and proprietors	High
Publicans and managers of licensed premises	High
Leisure and sports managers	High
Travel agency managers and proprietors	Medium
Health care practice managers	Medium
Residential, day and domiciliary care managers and proprietors	High
Property, housing and estate managers	Medium
Garage managers and proprietors	Low
Hairdressing and beauty salon managers and proprietors	High
Shopkeepers and proprietors: wholesale and retail	High
Waste disposal and environmental services managers	Low
Managers and proprietors in other services n.e.c.	High
Chemical scientists	Low
Biological scientists and biochemists	Low
Physical scientists	Low
Social and humanities scientists	Low
Natural and social science professionals n.e.c.	Low
Civil engineers	Low
Mechanical engineers	Low
Electrical engineers	Low
Electronics engineers	Low
Design and development engineers	Low
Production and process engineers	Low
Engineering professionals n.e.c.	Low
IT specialist managers	Low
IT project and programme managers	Low
IT business analysts, architects and systems designers	Low
Programmers and software development professionals	Low
Web design and development professionals	Low
Information technology and telecommunications professionals n.e.c.	Low
Conservation professionals	High
Environment professionals	Low
Research and development managers	Medium
Medical practitioners	High
Psychologists	High
Pharmacists	High
Ophthalmic opticians	High
Dental practitioners	High
Veterinarians	High
Medical radiographers	High
Podiatrists	High
Health professionals n.e.c.	High
Physiotherapists	High
Occupational therapists	High
Speech and language therapists	High
Therapy professionals n.e.c.	High
Nurses	High
Midwives	High
Higher education teaching professionals	Low
Further education teaching professionals	High
Secondary education teaching professionals	Medium
Primary and nursery education teaching professionals	High
Special needs education teaching professionals	High
Senior professionals of educational establishments	High
Education advisers and school inspectors	High
Teaching and other educational professionals n.e.c.	High
Barristers and judges	High
Solicitors	Medium
Legal professionals n.e.c.	Low
Chartered and certified accountants	Low
Management consultants and business analysts	Low
Business and financial project management professionals	Low
Actuaries, economists and statisticians	Low
Business and related research professionals	Low
Business, research and administrative professionals n.e.c.	Low
Architects	Low
Town planning officers	High
Quantity surveyors	Medium
Chartered surveyors	Medium
Chartered architectural technologists	Low
Construction project managers and related professionals	Low
Social workers	High
Probation officers	High
Clergy	High
Welfare professionals n.e.c.	High
Librarians	High
Archivists and curators	Medium
Quality control and planning engineers	Low
Quality assurance and regulatory professionals	Low
Environmental health professionals	Low
Journalists, newspaper and periodical editors	Medium
Public relations professionals	Medium
Advertising accounts managers and creative directors	High
Laboratory technicians	High
Electrical and electronics technicians	Low
Engineering technicians	Medium
Building and civil engineering technicians	Medium
Quality assurance technicians	Low
Planning, process and production technicians	Low
Science, engineering and production technicians n.e.c.	Low
Architectural and town planning technicians	High
Draughtspersons	Low
IT operations technicians	Low
IT user support technicians	Low
Paramedics	High
Dispensing opticians	High
Pharmaceutical technicians	High
Medical and dental technicians	High
Health associate professionals n.e.c.	High
Youth and community workers	High
Child and early years officers	High
Housing officers	High
Counsellors	High
Welfare and housing associate professionals n.e.c.	High
NCOs and other ranks	High
Police officers (sergeant and below)	High
Fire service officers (watch manager and below)	High
Prison service officers (below principal officer)	High
Police community support officers	High
Protective service associate professionals n.e.c.	High
Artists	Low
Authors, writers and translators	Low
Actors, entertainers and presenters	High
Dancers and choreographers	High
Musicians	High
Arts officers, producers and directors	Medium
Photographers, audio-visual and broadcasting equipment operators	Low
Graphic designers	Low
Product, clothing and related designers	Low
Sports players	Medium
Sports coaches, instructors and officials	Medium
Fitness instructors	High
Air traffic controllers	High
Aircraft pilots and flight engineers	High
Ship and hovercraft officers	High
Legal associate professionals	Low
Estimators, valuers and assessors	Low
Brokers	Low
Insurance underwriters	Low
Finance and investment analysts and advisers	Low
Taxation experts	High
Importers and exporters	Low
Financial and accounting technicians	Low
Financial accounts managers	Low
Business and related associate professionals n.e.c.	Low
Buyers and procurement officers	Low
Business sales executives	Medium
Marketing associate professionals	Low
Estate agents and auctioneers	High
Sales accounts and business development managers	Low
Conference and exhibition managers and organisers	High
Conservation and environmental associate professionals	High
Public services associate professionals	Low
Human resources and industrial relations officers	Low
Vocational and industrial trainers and instructors	Medium
Careers advisers and vocational guidance specialists	High
Inspectors of standards and regulations	Low
Health and safety officers	Medium
National government administrative occupations	Low
Local government administrative occupations	Low
Officers of non-governmental organisations	Low
Credit controllers	Low
Book-keepers, payroll managers and wages clerks	Low
Bank and post office clerks	High
Finance officers	High
Financial administrative occupations n.e.c.	Medium
Records clerks and assistants	Low
Pensions and insurance clerks and assistants	Low
Stock control clerks and assistants	High
Transport and distribution clerks and assistants	High
Library clerks and assistants	High
Human resources administrative occupations	Low
Sales administrators	High
Other administrative occupations n.e.c.	Low
Office managers	High
Office supervisors	Low
Medical secretaries	High
Legal secretaries	Low
School secretaries	High
Company secretaries	Medium
Personal assistants and other secretaries	Medium
Receptionists	High
Typists and related keyboard occupations	Medium
Farmers	Low
Horticultural trades	Low
Gardeners and landscape gardeners	Medium
Groundsmen and greenkeepers	Low
Agricultural and fishing trades n.e.c.	Low
Smiths and forge workers	High
Moulders, core makers and die casters	Low
Sheet metal workers	Low
Metal plate workers, and riveters	Low
Welding trades	Low
Pipe fitters	Low
Metal machining setters and setter-operators	Low
Tool makers, tool fitters and markers-out	Low
Metal working production and maintenance fitters	Low
Precision instrument makers and repairers	Low
Air-conditioning and refrigeration engineers	High
Vehicle technicians, mechanics and electricians	High
Vehicle body builders and repairers	Low
Vehicle paint technicians	Low
Aircraft maintenance and related trades	Low
Boat and ship builders and repairers	Low
Rail and rolling stock builders and repairers	Medium
Electricians and electrical fitters	Medium
Telecommunications engineers	High
TV, video and audio engineers	Medium
IT engineers	Low
Electrical and electronic trades n.e.c.	Medium
Skilled metal, electrical and electronic trades supervisors	Low
Steel erectors	Low
Bricklayers and masons	Low
Roofers, roof tilers and slaters	Low
Plumbers and heating and ventilating engineers	High
Carpenters and joiners	Low
Glaziers, window fabricators and fitters	Medium
Construction and building trades n.e.c.	Medium
Plasterers	Medium
Floorers and wall tilers	Low
Painters and decorators	Low
Construction and building trades supervisors	High
Weavers and knitters	Low
Upholsterers	Low
Footwear and leather working trades	Low
Tailors and dressmakers	Medium
Textiles, garments and related trades n.e.c.	Low
Pre-press technicians	Low
Printers	Low
Print finishing and binding workers	Low
Butchers	High
Bakers and flour confectioners	Low
Fishmongers and poultry dressers	Medium
Chefs	High
Cooks	Medium
Catering and bar managers	High
Glass and ceramics makers, decorators and finishers	Low
Furniture makers and other craft woodworkers	Low
Florists	High
Other skilled trades n.e.c.	Low
Nursery nurses and assistants	Low
Childminders and related occupations	High
Playworkers	High
Teaching assistants	High
Educational support assistants	High
Veterinary nurses	High
Pest control officers	High
Animal care services occupations n.e.c.	High
Nursing auxiliaries and assistants	High
Ambulance staff (excluding paramedics)	High
Dental nurses	High
Houseparents and residential wardens	High
Care workers and home carers	High
Senior care workers	High
Care escorts	High
Undertakers, mortuary and crematorium assistants	High
Sports and leisure assistants	High
Travel agents	Medium
Air travel assistants	High
Rail travel assistants	Low
Leisure and travel service occupations n.e.c.	High
Hairdressers and barbers	High
Beauticians and related occupations	High
Housekeepers and related occupations	High
Caretakers	High
Cleaning and housekeeping managers and supervisors	High
Sales and retail assistants	High
Retail cashiers and check-out operators	High
Telephone salespersons	Low
Pharmacy and other dispensing assistants	High
Vehicle and parts salespersons and advisers	High
Collector salespersons and credit agents	Low
Debt, rent and other cash collectors	High
Roundspersons and van salespersons	Low
Market and street traders and assistants	High
Merchandisers and window dressers	Medium
Sales related occupations n.e.c.	High
Sales supervisors	Medium
Call and contact centre occupations	Low
Telephonists	High
Communication operators	Low
Market research interviewers	Low
Customer service occupations n.e.c.	Medium
Customer service managers and supervisors	Medium
Food, drink and tobacco process operatives	Low
Glass and ceramics process operatives	Low
Textile process operatives	Low
Chemical and related process operatives	Low
Rubber process operatives	Low
Plastics process operatives	Low
Metal making and treating process operatives	Low
Electroplaters	Low
Process operatives n.e.c.	Low
Paper and wood machine operatives	Low
Coal mine operatives	Low
Quarry workers and related operatives	Low
Energy plant operatives	Low
Metal working machine operatives	Low
Water and sewerage plant operatives	High
Printing machine assistants	Low
Plant and machine operatives n.e.c.	Low
Assemblers (electrical and electronic products)	Low
Assemblers (vehicles and metal goods)	Low
Routine inspectors and testers	Low
Weighers, graders and sorters	Low
Tyre, exhaust and windscreen fitters	High
Sewing machinists	Low
Assemblers and routine operatives n.e.c.	Low
Scaffolders, stagers and riggers	Low
Road construction operatives	Medium
Rail construction and maintenance operatives	Medium
Construction operatives n.e.c.	Low
Large goods vehicle drivers	Low
Van drivers	Medium
Bus and coach drivers	High
Taxi and cab drivers and chauffeurs	High
Driving instructors	Medium
Crane drivers	Low
Fork-lift truck drivers	Low
Agricultural machinery drivers	Low
Mobile machine drivers and operatives n.e.c.	Low
Train and tram drivers	Low
Marine and waterways transport operatives	Medium
Air transport operatives	High
Rail transport operatives	Low
Other drivers and transport operatives n.e.c.	Low
Farm workers	Low
Forestry workers	High
Fishing and other elementary agriculture occupations n.e.c.	High
Elementary construction occupations	Low
Industrial cleaning process occupations	Low
Packers, bottlers, canners and fillers	Low
Elementary process plant occupations n.e.c.	Low
Postal workers, mail sorters, messengers and couriers	High
Elementary administration occupations n.e.c.	High
Window cleaners	High
Street cleaners	High
Cleaners and domestics	High
Launderers, dry cleaners and pressers	High
Refuse and salvage occupations	High
Vehicle valeters and cleaners	Low
Elementary cleaning occupations n.e.c.	High
Security guards and related occupations	High
Parking and civil enforcement occupations	High
School midday and crossing patrol occupations	High
Elementary security occupations n.e.c.	High
Shelf fillers	Medium
Elementary sales occupations n.e.c.	Medium
Elementary storage occupations	Low
Hospital porters	High
Kitchen and catering assistants	Medium
Waiters and waitresses	High
Bar staff	High
Leisure and theme park attendants	High
Other elementary services occupations n.e.c.	High

Distributional vulnerabilities of COVID-19, 2-metre and 1-metre

Category	Most Vulnerable group / area	2-Metre	% of group	1-Metre	% of group
Occupation	Elementary Admin’ & services Figures refer to proportion of employees in the sector	40,000 – 50,000	56 – 69%	30,000 – 40,000	46 – 56%
Sector	Wholesale & retail	65,000 – 80,000	48 – 57%	60,000 – 75,000	46 – 54%
Qualification	Below level 2 NQF	70,000 – 80,000	39 – 45%	60,000 – 70,000	34 – 40%
Age	16 – 24-year-olds	40,000 – 45,000	36 – 43%	30,000 –40,000	32 – 38%
Income	<£15,000 per annum	65,000 – 80,000	32 – 41%	55,000 – 70,000	29 – 36%
Gender	Males	145,000 – 150,000	32 – 34%	130,000 – 145,000	29 – 33%
Council Area	Mid Ulster	19,000 – 22,000	30 – 34%	17,000 – 20,000	27 – 31%
Part-Time / Full-Time	Part-Time	65,000 – 80,000	30 – 37%	55,000 – 70,000	26 – 32%

Total		240,000 – 280,000	27 – 33%	215,000 – 250,000	24 – 29%

Methodological approach to estimating labour market vulnerability in NI

Section	Baseline Occupational Data	Social Distancing impacts	Demand-side impacts
Data collection	- US Department of LaborO*NET Occupations data- ONS LFS 4 -digit Occupational Data-ONS SIC-SOC Matrix	- US Department for Labor O*NET Occupational characteristics- ONS BICS- ONS Essential workers analysis	- McKinsey & Co. industrial analysis of demand-side impacts- OBR Office for Budget Responsibility (2020), which produces outlooks for the UK Economy. In March 2020, they released a ‘Coronavirus Reference Scenario’ which forecasted GDP losses across the UK sectors. Coronavirus Reference Scenario GVA Forecasts- ONS BICS- Ulster University Economic Forecasting Model- Ulster University Economic Policy Centre Labour market assessments (Magill & McPeake, 2020)
Method for analysis	- Creation of a baseline labour market model- Aggregating 360 UK sub-occupations to 11 major occupational groups- Disaggregation on the basis of male, female, part-time, full-time, at the 3-digit level- Disaggregation on the basis of qualifications, wages at 2-digit level	- US Occupations transposed to UK Occupations using ONS reclassification- Standardised score out of 100, taking weighted average of ‘proximity’, ‘exposure to disease’ and ‘working with others’ scores- Score < 55 = ‘low risk’ Score => 55 =< 65 = ‘medium risk’ Score > 65 = ‘high risk’	- Standardised demand-side impacts applied to 2-digit sectors in NI- Impacts filtered through SIC-SOC matrix to determine impact across occupations- Filtered across demographics including gender, age and levels of formal qualification
Results		- Measured as share of workers in an occupation vulnerable to social-distancing. Impact was reported according to high, medium and low risk	- Measured as a share of workers in an occupation vulnerable to demand-side impacts, based on sectoral forecasts

Social Distancing Workforce Impact

Share of Workforce Impacted
Distance	Low risk	Medium risk	High risk
2-metres	10%	40%	90%
1-metre	10%	30%	60%

Who is Most Vulnerable? Exploring Job Vulnerability, Social Distancing and Demand During COVID-19

Figures & Tables

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Baseline demand impacts, on the basis of a central scenario, accounting for demand at one metre social distancing, two metre social distancing and whether the job is carried out on a part-time or full-time basis

Baseline Social Distancing impacts, by occupation_ 1m Social Distancing

Distributional vulnerabilities of COVID-19, 2-metre and 1-metre

Methodological approach to estimating labour market vulnerability in NI

Social Distancing Workforce Impact

Paradigm

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