The Anticipated Acceptance of Virtual Reality for Physical Activity with Special Consideration of a Self-Built Low-Cost Setup

In 2022, 1.8 billion adults were classified as physically inactive, representing an increase of 5% compared to 2010 (Strain et al., 2024). As a result, there is an increase in the risk of cardiometabolic disease development, cancer and type-2 diabetes, ultimately leading to increased health care costs for public health systems (Lee et al., 2012; Ding et al., 2016; Mikus et al., 2012). The global economic burden of sedentary lifestyles is estimated at $53.8 billion annually (Ding et al., 2016), higlighting the urgency of promoting physical activity through innovative strategies.

Virtual reality (VR) has emerged as a promising technology-based solution to increase physical activity by embedding entertainment into exercise. VR applications include exergames that gamify physical movement (Huang et al., 2017), structured virtual workouts delivered in immersive environments (Merola et al., 2025), and sport-specific simulations such as tennis, boxing, and cycling (Shepherd et al., 2018). These interventions have been shown to enhance intrinsic motivation (Liu et al., 2019), improve exercise adherence (Bird et al., 2021), elevate mood (Liu et al., 2024), and increase enjoyment while reducing perceived exertion (McClure & Schofield, 2019; Murray et al., 2016). These benefits are observed across both healthy and clinical populations, including reductions in systolic and diastolic blood pressure (Vorwerg-Gall et al., 2024).

Despite these promising outcomes, key barriers hinder the widespread adoption of VR for physical activity. In addition to cost and psychological acceptance, factors such as technological literacy, physical space constraints, and motion sickness play a substantial role in shaping user uptake. For instance, low digital literacy can prevent individuals from effectively using VR systems (Chang et al. 2023), while spatial limitations at home may restrict the feasibility of VR-based movement interventions (McGill et al., 2015). Moreover, motion sickness remains a frequently reported issue, particularly during physically active VR experiences (Rebenitsch & Owen, 2016). These multidimensional barriers highlight the complexity of VR adoption, setting the stage for a more focused examination of cost and psychological factors in this study. Nevertheless, cost is also a barrier, with commercial VR systems typically ranging from $300 to $600, depending on features such as memory and accessories (Ali & Fezari, 2025), which can limit accessibility. To address this, cost-effective alternatives have been proposed. For example, Exel et al. (2023) demonstrated that a low-cost VR setup produced positive effects on mood, enjoyment, and perceived exertion, suggesting its viability as an accessible option.

Understanding the psychological determinants of technology adoption is essential for the effective development and implementation of VR-based interventions, particularly as part of broader public health strategies to promote physical activity. To support such efforts, it is crucial to assess not only current individuals’ perceptions of VR technologies but also their intentions and willingness to adopt and engage with it in the future. In this study, anticipated acceptance is defined as a composite of individuals’ behavioral intention to use, perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, enjoyment, attitudes toward use, and willingness to pay or build a VR setup. This approach aligns with constructs from the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and related frameworks (Li et al., 2019; Manis & Choi, 2019), and is designed to capture both psychological readiness and practical feasibility in the general population.

Building upon this rationale, the present study aims to investigate the anticipated acceptance of VR for physical activity, through the application of a TAM survey, to examine (1) the influence of age, past use, curiosity and price willing to pay as contributing factors, (2) perceptions about ease of use, usefulness, enjoyment and attitudes towards the utilization and purchase/build of virtual reality and (3) the probability of future utilization and future purchase/build intention of VR. Therfore, it is hypothesized that external factors (age, past use, curiosity, price willingness) and user perceptions (e.g., ease of use, enjoyment, usefulness) would predict acceptance of VR for PA.

This study examined the anticipated acceptance of VR for physical activity by comparing a commercially available system with a self-built, low-cost setup. Based on the TAM, it is hypothesized that both external factors (age, past use, curiosity, price willingness) and user perceptions (e.g., ease of use, enjoyment, usefulness) would predict acceptance. A particular focus was placed on understanding whether affordability, operationalized through the low-cost setup, would play a decisive role in shaping users’ intentions to adopt VR for physical activity, and whether VR can serve as an effective primary intervention for increasing PA.

Overall, the influence of external variables was more limited than expected. In the general VR model, only three out of nine hypothesized paths were significant, while in the SBLCS, just two of six paths reached significance. These findings suggest that internal perceptions are more important than demographic or contextual variables in determining anticipated use.

Contrary to expectations, external variables had only a marginal impact on acceptance in both models. In the commercial VR model, only age and past use significantly predicted ease of use and intention to use. These findings align with previous research emphasizing the role of prior exposure and technological familiarity in facilitating technology acceptance (Manis & Choi, 2019; Langaro et al., 2022; Chen et al., 2025; Schreiter et al., 2025). However, in the SBLCS model, age had no significant influence, and past use only weakly affected perceived usefulness, suggesting that DIY setups depend more on experiential engagement than demographic traits.

Curiosity emerged as a minor yet significant predictor in the SBLCS model, influencing perceived ease of use. This suggests that DIY systems appeal to users with a “maker” mindset—those who find satisfaction in building and experimenting. In contrast, willingness to pay did not influence acceptance in either model, questioning the assumption that cost is a primary barrier to adoption. These findings resonate with broader literature suggesting that price is often considered in conjunction with perceived value and experience quality (Abbas et al., 2024)

Together, these results highlight diverging pathways to acceptance between commercial VR and low-cost DIY systems. Commercial solutions benefit from usability and prior familiarity, while SBLCS adoption seems driven more by curiosity and hands-on engagement. Understanding these mechanisms is essential for guiding the design and implementation of VR-based interventions, particularly when envisioned as scalable tools for public health promotion. From a public health perspective, these findings have several implications. Commercial VR systems may support structured delivery, while DIY systems expand access equity. However, real adoption hinges on health impact, usability, and motivation—factors underpinned by enjoyment and experiential design (Mehrabi et al., 2022; Hosseinie et al., 2023). Commercial VR systems may support engagement in structured environments such as rehabilitation clinics, school-based programs, or aging-in-place initiatives, while low-cost or self-built VR setups could bridge digital health gaps in under-resourced settings. By lowering financial and technical barriers, SBLCS approaches may enhance equity in access to exergaming and VR-mediated physical activity interventions (Sarkar et al., 2021). However, their effectiveness in real-world deployment depends on demonstrating tangible health benefits, ensuring usability, and maintaining high levels of intrinsic motivation and enjoyment, factors repeatedly shown to mediate long-term adherence to digital health technologies (Jo & Park, 2023).

Across both models, perceived ease of use consistently led to enjoyment, which in turn predicted perceived usefulness. This three-part pathway was the strongest and most consistent in both models, especially in the SBLCS. While TAM traditionally emphasizes ease of use and usefulness (Davis, 1989), our findings reflect growing evidence from updated models like the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology 2, which include hedonic motivation as a key predictor of behavioral intention (Venkatesh, Thong, & Xu, 2012). Empirical studies on VR exercise and rehabilitation further support this perspective, showing that enjoyment and immersion are critical for adherence and long-term engagement (Mouatt et al., 2020; Jo & Park, 2023). Taken together, these results extend TAM by highlighting the importance of intrinsic and experiential factors, which are often underrepresented in utilitarian adoption models. In practical terms, this suggests that intuitive design and positive user experiences are not just complementary but central to how individuals evaluate the potential of VR for physical activity. This interpretation aligns with broader evidence showing that simplicity enhances engagement and that enjoyment acts as a primary driver of technology use (Manis & Choi, 2019; Abbas et al., 2024).

In the DIY context, this mechanism becomes even more evident. Ease of use enables enjoyment, which then shapes perceptions of utility. This indirect pathway contrasts with earlier findings that suggested a strong direct effect from ease of use to usefulness (Gao et al., 2013; Lee et al., 2012; Schepers & Wetzels, 2007). For SBLCS in particular, enjoyment appears to mediate this relationship, underscoring its importance in user evaluation. Therefore, systems designed for low-cost use must be not only functional and accessible, but also intrinsically enjoyable. This holds especially true in the context of physical activity, where long-term engagement is necessary to achieve health benefits (Jo & Park, 2023; Chen et al., 2025).

Yet, despite the clear influence of these pathways, overall behavioral intention remained low. Participants expressed moderately positive attitudes toward both VR systems, but these attitudes did not translate into a strong willingness to use them. This intention–behavior gap is a well-documented challenge in health technology adoption (Sheeran & Webb, 2016). Factors such as doubts about effectiveness, low perceived necessity, or concerns over technical self-efficacy may help explain this reluctance (Sarkar et al., 2021).

Future research should address this attitude–intention gap through intervention and longitudinal studies that evaluate whether initial enjoyment translates into sustained engagement and measurable health outcomes. Structured onboarding, guided usage sessions, and explicit communication of VR’s health benefits may strengthen behavioral adoption in both commercial and low-cost contexts. Moreover, integrating motivational design principles informed by Self-Determination Theory—emphasizing autonomy, competence, and relatedness—could enhance the appeal of VR exergames (Ryan & Deci, 2020). These strategies will be critical for transforming VR’s potential as a health promotion tool into widespread real-world use.

This study has several limitations. First, the age-skewed sample, predominantly younger participants, limits the generalizability of the findings. Future research should aim for more balanced age distribution and larger, more diverse samples. Second, most participants had limited prior experience with virtual reality, which may have influenced their perceptions of ease of use and usefulness. These findings should therefore be interpreted cautiously, as attitudes may change following hands-on use. Third, the online, voluntary nature of the survey introduces potential self-selection bias. Individuals with a greater interest in technology or physical activity may be overrepresented. Finally, the cross-sectional design does not allow for conclusions about how acceptance evolves over time. Longitudinal or pre-post studies are recommended to better understand how VR usage affects user attitudes and intentions.

This study assessed the anticipated acceptance of VR for physical activity, comparing a commercially available system with a self-built low-cost setup. For both commercial and low-cost VR, intuitive design and positive user experiences are essential. While self-built low-cost approach hold promise for expanding access, widespread adoption will depend on whether these systems can deliver engaging, user-friendly, and impactful experiences that translate into long-term health benefits. Our findings contribute to the growing body of literature on VR and exergaming by showing that perceived enjoyment, more than affordability, is central to user acceptance.