Fig. 1
Other intestinal parasites detected among the aboriginal community during wet and dry seasons_
| Intestinal parasites | Number of infection (%) | Association with T. trichiura infections | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wet season (N=256) | Dry season (N=217) | Wet season (N=256) | Dry season (N=217) | |||
| χ2 | p-value | χ2 | p-value | |||
| Ascaris lumbricoides | 81 (31.6 %) | 54 (24.9 %) | 32.460 | <0.001** | 22.882 | <0.001** |
| Hookworm | 59 (23.0 %) | 73 (33.6 %) | 23.614 | <0.001** | 27.544 | <0.001** |
| Giardia lamblia | 53 (20.7 %) | 18 (8.3 %) | 3.430 | 0.064 | 8.069 | 0.005** |
| Entamoeba spp. | 56 (21.9 %) | 53 (24.4 %) | 2.412 | 0.120 | 2.267 | 0.132 |
| Blastocystis spp. | 55 (21.5 %) | 38 (17.5 %) | 1.940 | 0.164 | 0.162 | 0.688 |
| Chilomastix mesnilii | 2 (0.8 %) | 1 (0.5 %) | 1.618 | 0.203 | 0.575 | 0.448 |
| Dientamoeba fragilis | 2 (0.8 %) | 0 (0.0 %) | 2.511 | 0.113 | NA | NA |
| Endolimax nana | 21 (8.2 %) | 7 (3.2 %) | 2.359 | 0.125 | 1.529 | 0.216 |
| Entamoeba coli | 10 (3.9 %) | 5 (2.3 %) | 2.535 | 0.111 | 0.595 | 0.441 |
| Iodamoeba butschlii | 11 (4.3 %) | 7 (3.2 %) | 0.004 | 0.950 | 1.529 | 0.216 |
Prevalence and significant difference of Trichuris trichiura infections during the wet and dry seasons_
| Wet season (n=256) | Dry season (n=217) | Significant difference between the two seasons | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Number of infections | Prevalence (%) | 95 % CI | Number of infections | Prevalence (%) | 95% CI | Z-score | p-value |
| 142 | 55.5 | 49.2, 61.7 | 138 | 63.6 | 56.8, 70.0 | 1.792 | 0.073 |
Univariate analysis of the risk factors associated with Trichuris trichiura infections in the aboriginal community during wet (n=256) and dry (n=217) seasons_
| Variables | Wet season (n=256) | Dry season (n=217) | OR (95% Cl) | p-value | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wet season | Dry season | Wet | Dry | |||||
| Prevalence | (95% Cl) | Prevalence | (95% Cl) | |||||
| Age | ||||||||
| <15 | 58; 22.7 % | 17.7, 28.3 | 53; 24.4 % | 18.9, 30.7 | 1.690 (1.420,2.135) | 1.496(1.283, 3.869) | ||
| >15 | 84; 32.8 % | 27.1,38.9 | 85; 39.2 % | 32.6, 46.0 | 1 | 1 | 0.143 | 0.014* |
| Gender | ||||||||
| Female | 77; 30.1 % | 24.5, 36.1 | 63; 29.0 % | 23.1,35.6 | 1.994(1.606,2.630) | 0.703 (0.404, 1.225) | ||
| Male | 65; 25.4 % | 20.2,31.2 | 75; 34.6 % | 28.3,41.3 | 1 | 1 | 0.980 | 0.213 |
| Number of household | ||||||||
| members | ||||||||
| >8 | 93; 36.3 % | 30.4, 42.6 | 78; 35.9 % | 29.6, 42.7 | 1.967(1.544, 3.718) | 1.722 (1.412,2.265) | ||
| <8 | 49; 19.1 % | 14.5, 24.5 | 60;27.7 % | 21.8, 34.1 | 1 | 1 | 0.909 | 0.255 |
| Monthly household | ||||||||
| income | ||||||||
| ≤ RM500 | 90; 35.2 % | 29.3,41.4 | 88; 40.6 % | 34.0, 47.4 | 1.511 (1.294, 3.891) | 1.021 (1.575, 1.813) | ||
| > RM500 | 52; 20.3 % | 15.6, 25.8 | 50; 23.0 % | 17.6, 29.2 | 1 | 1 | 0.017* | 0.944 |
| Education level | ||||||||
| No formal education | ||||||||
| Primary and secondary education | 37; 14.5% 105; 41.0% | 10.4, 19.4 34.9, 47.3 | 40; 18.4% 98; 45.2 % | 13.5, 24.2 38.4, 52.0 | 1.451 (1.266, 5.764) 1 | 1.935(1.511,2.712) 1 | 0.003** | 0.828 |
| Occupation | ||||||||
| Rubber tapper, farmer | 140; 54.7 % | 48.4, 60.9 | 97; 44.7 % | 38.0,51.6 | 3.889 (1.770,9.648) | 1.788(1.005, 3.180) | 0.078 | 0.047* |
| Professional, factory | 2; 0.8 % | 0.1, 2.8 | 41; 18.9% | 13.9, 24.8 | 1 | 1 | ||
| Water supply | ||||||||
| Untreated tap water | 101; 39.5% | 33.4, 45.7 | 95; 43.8 % | 37.1,50.7 | 1.857(1.105, 3.120) | 2.154(1.219, 3.807) | ||
| from river and wells | 0.019* | 0.008** | ||||||
| Governmental tap water | 41; 16.0% | 11.8,21.1 | 43; 19.8% | 14.7, 25.8 | 1 | 1 | ||
| Usage of stored river | ||||||||
| water | ||||||||
| Yes | 75; 29.3 % | 23.8, 35.3 | 60; 27.7 % | 21.8, 34.1 | 1.539(1.937,2.530) | 1.072 (1.613, 1.876) | ||
| No | 67; 26.2 % | 20.9, 32.0 | 78; 35.9 % | 29.6, 42.7 | 1 | 1 | 0.088 | 0.807 |
| Latrine system/ | ||||||||
| defecation | ||||||||
| No latrine system, river | 140; 54.7 % | 48.4, 60.9 | 135; 62.2 % | 55.4, 68.7 | 1.892 (1.311, 11.519) | 1.022 (0.997, 1.048) | ||
| Flush toilet and pit latrine | 2; 0.8 % | 0.1, 2.8 | 3; 1.4% | 0.3, 4.0 | 1 | 1 | 0.482 | 0.187 |
| Wash hand after | ||||||||
| playing with soil | ||||||||
| No | 16; 6.3% | 3.6, 10.0 | 9; 4.2 % | 1.9, 7.7 | 0.907 (0.423, 1.947) | 0.543 (0.206, 1.430) | ||
| Yes | 126; 49.2 % | 42.9, 55.5 | 129; 59.4% | 52.6, 66.0 | 1 | 1 | 0.802 | 0.211 |
| Wash hand after | ||||||||
| defecation | ||||||||
| No | 7; 2.7 % | 1.1, 5.6 | 5; 2.3 % | 0.8, 5.3 | 1.687 (1.241, 1.955) | 0.705 (0.184,2.705) | ||
| Yes | 135; 52.7 % | 46.4, 59.0 | 133; 61.3% | 54.5, 67.8 | 1 | 1 | 0.480 | 0.609 |
| Defecation area | ||||||||
| River, bushes | 66; 25.8 % | 20.5,31.6 | 67; 30.9 % | 24.8, 37.5 | 1.737 (1.043,2.893) | 2.120 (1.203, 3.736) | ||
| Flush toilet and pit latrine | 76; 29.7 % | 24.2, 35.7 | 71; 32.7% | 26.5, 39.4 | 1 | 1 | 0.033* | 0.009** |
| Animals rearing | ||||||||
| Yes | 89; 34.8 % | 28.9,41.0 | 81; 37.3% | 30.9, 44.1 | 1.621 (1.983,2.674) | 1.968(1.551,2.698) | 0.908 | |
| No | 53; 20.7 % | 15.9, 26.2 | 57; 26.3 % | 20.5, 32.7 | 1 | 1 | 0.058 | |
| Educational status of | ||||||||
| father | ||||||||
| No formal education | 67; 26.2 % | 20.9, 32.0 | 41; 18.9% | 13.9, 24.8 | 1.591 (0.960,2.635) | 1.862 (1.475,2.561) | ||
| Primary and secondary education | 75; 29.3 % | 23.8, 35.3 | 97; 44.7 % | 38.0,51.6 | 1 | 1 | 0.071 | 0.623 |
| Educational status of | ||||||||
| mother | ||||||||
| No formal education | 62; 24.2 % | 19.1,29.9 | 39; 18.0 % | 13.1,23.7 | 1.434(1.863,2.383) | 1.021 (0.551, 1.890) | ||
| Primary and secondary education | 80; 31.3% | 25.6, 37.3 | 99; 45.6 % | 38.9, 52.5 | 1 | 1 | 0.164 | 0.948 |
Multivariate analysis of the risk factors of Trichuris trichiura infections in the aboriginal community during wet (n=256) and dry (n=217) seasons_
| Variables | OR (95% CI) | p-value | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wet season | Dry season | Wet | Dry | |
| Age | NA | 1.317 (1.396, 4.381) | NA | 0.653 |
| ≤15 | ||||
| Monthly household income | ||||
| ≤ RM500 | 1.545 (1.304, 3.979) | NA | 0.042* | NA |
| Education level | ||||
| No formal education | 1.440 (1.195, 2.997) | NA | 0.049* | NA |
| Occupation | ||||
| Rubber tapper, farmer | NA | 1.435 (1.768, 2.683) | NA | 0.258 |
| Water supply | 1.362 (1.030, 4.414) | 2.253(1.996, 5.095) | 0.426 | 0.049* |
| Untreated tap water from river | ||||
| and wells | ||||
| Defecation area | ||||
| River, bushes | 2.740 (1.184, 6.339) | 1.513 (1.474, 4.834) | 0.019* | 0.485 |