Temporary Protection in International and EU Law: Historical Evolution, Legal Frameworks, and Contemporary Challenges
By: Olena Sviatun, Alla Fedorova and Ondrej Hamuľák
References
- American Immigration Council. Asylum in the United States. Fact Sheet. May 2025. <https://www.americanimmigrationcouncil.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/asylum_in_the_united_states_may_2025.pdf.>.
- Amnesty International. FyROM: The protection of Kosovo Albanian refugees. AI Index: EUR 65/03/99. Available at: <https://www.amnesty.org/ar/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/eur650031999en.pdf>.
- AYHAN, K. The world’s Leading Refugee Host, Turkey Has a Complex Migration History. The Online Journal of the Migration Policy Institute. November 1, 2023. Available at: <https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/turkey-migration-history#:~:text=Turkey%20is%20the%20world’s%20leading%20refugee%2Dhosting%20country%2C,of%20the%20Republic%20of%20Turkey%20in%201923.>
- Baker, K. Revival of Measures to Expel Asylum-Seekers from the United States: Implications for Non-Refoulement Obligations. Oxford Human Rights Hub. August 25, 2025. Available at: <https://ohrh.law.ox.ac.uk/revival-of-measures-to-expel-asylum-seekers-from-the-united-states-implications-for-non-refoulement-obligations/.>
- CARRERA, S., INELI CIGER, M., VOSYLIUTE, L., BRUMAT, L. The EU grants temporary protection for people fleeing war in Ukraine. Time to rethink unequal solidarity in EU asylum policy. asileproject.eu, March 2022. Available at: <https://www.asileproject.eu/suleyman-demirel-university-3/>
- COLES, G. J. L. Temporary Refuge and the Large Scale Influx of Refugees. Australian Year Book of International Law. 1983, vol. 7, pp. 189–212.
- Commission on Human Rights. Question of the violation of human rights and fundamental freedoms in any part of the world, with particular reference to colonial and other dependent countries and territories: Study on Human Rights and Massive Exoduses. E/OT.4/l50. 1981. 69 P. <https://docs.un.org/en/E/CN.4/1503.>
- Concept Paper. Roundtable on Temporary Protection. International Institute of Humanitarian Law, Italy. San Remo. 19-20 July 2012. < https://www.unhcr.org/uk/sites/uk/files/legacy-pdf/506d8ee49.pdf>.
- Concept Paper. Roundtable on Temporary Protection. International Institute of Humanitarian Law, Italy. San Remo. 19–20 July 2012. < https://www.unhcr.org/uk/sites/uk/files/legacy-pdf/506d8ee49.pdf>.
- DALKIRAN M., LIPMAN L. K. ‘But we have to be realistic’: examining the origins of temporary protection in the USA and European Union. Journal of Refugee Studies. 2025, vol. 38, no. 1, pp. 181–196.
- EDWARDS, A. Temporary Protection, Derogation and 1951 Refugee Convention. Melbourne Journal of International Law. 2012, vol. 13, pp. 5–6.
- ESEN, S. The Principle of Non-Refoulement as a Constitutional Right of Asylum Seekers in Turkey, VerfBlog, 2016/7/26, <https://verfassungsblog.de/the-principle-of-non-refoulement-as-a-constitutional-eight-of-asylum-seekers-in-turkey/>, DOI: 10.17176/20160802-094330.
- European Council on Refugees and Exile. Country Report: Turkey. July 2025. <https://asylumineurope.org/reports/country/turkiye/>
- FEDOROVA, A. The main categories of displaced persons fleeing armed conflicts and their correlation in the context of russian invasion of Ukraine in (2022) Ukraine in the system of modern international legal order and Еuropean integration: problems of doctrine and practice in the context of modern humanitarian challenges: соllective monograph / edited by authors. Chernivtsi, Ukraine: yuriy Fedkovych Chernivtsi National University, 2022, pp. 333–363.
- FERRIS, E. Syrian Refugees in Türkiye: Prospects for Return or Integration? Rice University’s Baker Institute for Public Policy Briefs. April 22, 2025. Available online at: <https://www.bakerinstitute.org/research/syrian-refugees-turkiye-prospects-return-or-integration>.
- Global Consultations on International Protection/Third Track: Protection of Refugees in Mass Influx Situations: Overall Protection Framework. 2001. UN Doc EC/GC/01/4. < https://www.refworld.org/policy/strategy/unhcr/2001/en/21073>.
- INELI-CIGER, M. A Temporary Protection Regime in Line with International Law: Utopia or Real Possibility? International Community Law Review. 2016, vol. 18, no. 3–4, pp. 278–316.
- INELI-CIGER, M. Beyond Temporariness: Policy Options for Ukrainians Under EU Temporary Protection in 2025. College of Europe Policy Brief. 2025. # 2 (June). Available at: <https://www.coleurope.eu/sites/default/files/research-paper/%C4%B0neli-Ciger_CEPOB_2-2025.pdf.>
- INELI-CIGER, M. Legal landmine: the risky proposition of extending the application of the EU Temporary Protection Directive beyond March 2025. EU Law Analysis. May 31, 2024) Available at: <https://eulawanalysis.blogspot.com/2024/05/legal-landmine-risky-proposition-of.html.>.
- INELI-CIGER, M. Protecting Syrians in Turkey: A Legal Analysis Protecting Syrians in Turkey: A Legal Analysis. International Journal of Refugee Law. 2017, vol. 29, no 4, pp. 555–579. doi:10.1093/ijrl/eex042
- INELI-CIGER, M. Towards Temporary Prolonged Protection? EU Migration Law Blog, June 10, 2025. Available at: <https://eumigrationlawblog.eu/towards-temporary-prolonged-protection/>
- KORTUKOVA, T., yEMETS, y. Temporary protection in the European Union: legal analysis. Legal Horizons. 2024, vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 36-45. https://doi.org/10.54477/LH.25192353.2024.2.pp.36-45.
- KÜÇÜK E. Temporary Protection Directive: Testing New Frontiers? European Journal of Migration and Law. 2023, vol. 25., no. 1, pp. 1–30. https://doi.org/10.1163/15718166-12340142.
- LUQUERNA, A. Biden’s Proposed Asylum Policy does not Fulfill U.S. Treaty Obligations. Opinio Juris. March 22, 2023. Available at: <https://opiniojuris.org/2023/03/22/bidens-proposed-asylum-policy-does-not-fulfill-u-s-treaty-obligations/>
- RAMJI-NOGALES, J. Non-Refoulement under the Trump Administration.. / American Society of International Law Insights. 2019. Volume 23. Issue 11. 03.12.2019. <https://www.asil.org/insights/volume/23/issue/11/non-refoulement-under-trump-administration.>
- SELM, van, J. Temporary Protection for Ukrainians: learning the lessons of the 1990s? ASILE: Global Asylum Governance and the European Union’s Role. Forum on the EU Temporary Protection Responses to the Ukraine war . 22 April 2022. Available at: <https://www.asileproject.eu/temporary-protection-for-ukrainians-learning-the-lessons-of-the-1990s/>.
- Temporary Protection Germany 2023 Update. Available at: <https://asylumineurope.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/AIDA-DE_Temporary-Protection_2023.pdf>.
- UN Economic and Social Committee. Report to the UN Secretary General. “Human Rights and Mass Exoduses”. A/38/538. 1983. 21 p. < https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/57285/files/A_38_538-EN.pdf.>
- UNGCR Emergency Handbook. Access to territory and non-refoulement. <https://emergency.unhcr.org/protection/legal-framework/access-territory-and-non-refoulement.>
- UNHCR Commentary on the Draft Directive on Temporary Protection in the Event of a Mass Influx (2000). <https://www.refworld.org/legal/intlegcomments/unhcr/2000/en/35448.>
- UNHCR Guidelines on Temporary Protection or Stay Arrangements (2014) <https://emergency.unhcr.org/sites/default/files/Guidelines%20on%20Temporary%20Protection%20or%20Stay%20Arrangements%2C%20February%202014.pdf.>
- United Nations Network on Migration. The principle of non-refoulement under international human rights law. <https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Migration/GlobalCompactMigration/ThePrincipleNon-RefoulementUnderInternationalHumanRightsLaw.pdf>
- WOMACK, H., KAPIC, J., BENIC BELAVIC, K. UNHCR on Regional Housing Programme in Croatia: Refugees of 1990s conflicts come home to some comfort. Croatia, Zagreb. 2019. 28 March. Available at: <https://regionalhousingprogramme.org/unhcr-on-regional-housing-programme-in-croatia-refugees-of-1990s-conflicts-come-home-to-some-comfort/>
- ZOETEWEIJ, M. The State of Emergency, Non-Refoulement and the Turkish Constitutional Court, VerfBlog, 2018/5/09. <https://verfassungsblog.de/the-state-of-emergency-non-refoulement-and-the-turkish-constitutional-court/, DOI: 10.17176/20180509-084012.>;
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/eustu-2025-0003 | Journal eISSN: 2464-6695
Language: English
Page range: 60 - 99
Published on: Jul 31, 2025
Published by: Palacký University Olomouc
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services
Publication frequency: 2 issues per year
Keywords:
Related subjects:
© 2025 Olena Sviatun, Alla Fedorova, Ondrej Hamuľák, published by Palacký University Olomouc
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 3.0 License.