Skip to main content
Have a personal or library account? Click to login
Family Begging as Modern Slavery: Between Child Mistreatment and Human Trafficking Cover

Family Begging as Modern Slavery: Between Child Mistreatment and Human Trafficking

Open Access
|Oct 2026

References

  1. Albanian Criminal Code (as amended by Law No 8/2026 of 28 January 2026), Articles 110/a, 124/b and 128/b; draft Criminal Code, Articles 608 to 631 and 632 to 633.
  2. Cass. pen. (Italy), Court of Cassation, judgment no 7140/2021.
  3. Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union. (2000). Article 5.
  4. Cherneva, I. (2011). Human trafficking for begging. Buffalo Human Rights Law Review, 17. https://digitalcommons.law.buffalo.edu/bhrlr/vol17/iss1/2/
  5. Children and Young Persons Act 1933 (United Kingdom), section 4.
  6. Chowdury and Others v Greece, no 21884/15 (ECtHR, 30 March 2017).
  7. C.N. and V. v France, no 67724/09 (ECtHR, 11 October 2012).
  8. CONFRONT Project. (n.d.). Countering new forms of Roma children trafficking (child begging as a form of trafficking).
  9. Convention on the Rights of the Child. (1989). And Optional Protocol on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography (2000).
  10. Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings (Warsaw Convention). (2005). CETS No 197.
  11. CRCA/ECPAT Albania & ALO 116 111. (2026). Public statement on the economic exploitation of children (2021 to April 2026). https://crca.al/
  12. Delap, E. (2009). Begging for change: Forced child begging toolkit for researchers. London: Anti-Slavery International. https://www.antislavery.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/beggingforchange09.pdf
  13. Directive 2011/36/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 5 April 2011 on preventing and combating trafficking in human beings and protecting its victims.
  14. Directive (EU) 2024/1712 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 June 2024. Eurostat. (2026). Trafficking in human beings statistics (data extracted January 2026). https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/
  15. French Criminal Code, Articles 225-4-1 and 225-12-5 to 225-12-7.
  16. German Criminal Code (StGB), §§ 232, 233 and 236.
  17. GRETA. (2025). Evaluation report on Albania (Fourth Evaluation Round, GRETA(2025)05). Strasbourg: Council of Europe. https://rm.coe.int/greta-evaluation-report-on-the-implementation-of-the-council-of-europe/1680b65f41
  18. ILO Convention No 29 on Forced Labour (1930); ILO Convention No 182 on the Worst Forms of Child Labour (1999).
  19. ILO, Walk Free & IOM. (2022). Global estimates of modern slavery: Forced labour and forced marriage. Geneva: International Labour Organization.
  20. Italian Criminal Code, Articles 600, 600-octies (as amended by Decree-Law No 48/2025) and 601.
  21. Modern Slavery Act 2015 (United Kingdom), sections 1 to 3 and 45.
  22. Mullally, S. (2026). Report of the UN Special Rapporteur on Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children (A/HRC/62/41). Geneva: Human Rights Council.
  23. Palermo Protocol. (2000). Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children, Article 3.
  24. Population Council. (2026). Hiding in plain sight: Trafficking persons with disabilities for begging in Ethiopia.
  25. Rantsev v Cyprus and Russia, no 25965/04 (ECtHR, 7 January 2010).
  26. Siliadin v France, no 73316/01 (ECtHR, 26 July 2005).
  27. S.M. v Croatia [GC], no 60561/14 (ECtHR, 25 June 2020).
  28. Spanish Criminal Code, Articles 177 bis and 232.
  29. STS of 10 November 2000 (Spain, Tribunal Supremo).
  30. Supreme Court of Albania (Criminal Chamber). (2022). Unifying Decision No 217 of 27 July 2022.
  31. UNODC. (2024). Global report on trafficking in persons 2024. Vienna: United Nations. https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/glotip/2024/GLOTIP2024_BOOK.pdf
  32. UNODC (E4J). (n.d.). Child trafficking for exploitation in forced criminal activities and forced begging.
  33. U.S. Department of State. (2024). The misconceptions of human trafficking; Trafficking in persons report on Albania (2024 and 2025).
  34. V.C.L. and A.N. v the United Kingdom, nos 77587/12 and 74603/12 (ECtHR, 16 February 2021).
  35. Walk Free. (2026). Modern slavery risks rise as conflicts across Europe, Africa, and West Asia reach highest level since WWII.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/ejels-2026-0024 | Journal eISSN: 2519-1284 (formerly 2520-0429) | Journal ISSN: 2520-0429
Language: English
Page range: 1 - 13
Published online: Oct 11, 2026
Published in print: Sep 1, 2026
Published by: International Institute for Private, Commercial and Competition Law
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services
Publication frequency: 3 issues per year

© 2026 Ylli Pjetërnikaj, published by International Institute for Private, Commercial and Competition Law
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 License.