Removal Efficiency of Physicochemical and Microbial Pollutants in Wastewater Using Vertical Flow Constructed Wetlands

Udoma Aisha Wunmi

doi:10.2478/contagri-2026-0005

.blurhash-client-img { display: none !important; }

Removal Efficiency of Physicochemical and Microbial Pollutants in Wastewater Using Vertical Flow Constructed Wetlands

Contemporary Agriculture

Volume 75 (2026): Issue 1 (June 2026)

By: Udoma Aisha Wunmi

Open Access

|Apr 2026

Abstract

Constructed wetlands are decentralized systems for treating wastewater (WW), yet there is still a wide knowledge gap regarding the potential of some indigenous macrophytes. In this study, two indigenous macrophytes, Eragrostis curvula (EC) and Paspalum dilatatum (PD), were evaluated for treating municipal wastewater using Vertical Flow Constructed Wetland (VFCW) with shea nut shell biochar (BCH) as a substrate enhancer. EC was represented by two units (ECWW and ECBCH), while PDWW and PDBCH represented the wetlands planted with PD. A hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 5 days was observed with a hydraulic loading rate (HLR) of 24 mm/day. The highest removal efficiencies for physicochemical and microbial parameters were as follows: Total Suspended Solids (TSS) – 94.93±8.43%, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) – 37.68±16.17%, Turbidity – 100±2.47%, Salinity – 60.39±7.86%, Oxidation-Reduction Potential (ORP) – 91.81±13.96%, Electrical Conductivity (EC) – 41.75±7.17%, Nitrite (NO₂-N) – 100±26.78%, Nitrate (NO₃-N) – 100±0%, Ammonium (NH₄-N) – 92.17±4.78%, Faecal Coliform (FC) – 100±9.03%, and Total Coliform (TC) – 98.71±13.55%. Plant height and number of leaves showed that EC was better established than PD. The HYDRUS-1D software was used to validate the porous media parameters and it was concluded that the retention capacities of the constructed wetlands were optimal, with flow occurring from the residual water content region to saturated water content region. The measured shape factors α (0.438m-¹), θ (1.0) and n (2.063) produced a Python-fitted curve comparable to the validation curve obtained from the HYDRUS-1D model.

References

Abagale, F.K. 2021. Seasonal Variation and Removal of Organic Pollutants in Wastewater Using Low-Cost Treatment Technologies in Tamale Metropolis, Ghana. Journal of Water Resource and Protection, 13(4): 271–282. https://doi.org/10.4236/jwarp.2021.134016
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Acquah, T., Appiah-Brempong, M. & Anornu, G.K. 2025. Groundwater quality and associated health risks in the Eastern Region of Ghana. Heliyon, 11(2): e41910. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2025.e41910
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Ahmad, M., Lee, S.S., Dou, X., Mohan, D., Sung, J.-K., Yang, J.E. & Ok, Y.S. 2012. Effects of pyrolysis temperature on soybean stover- and peanut shell-derived biochar properties and TCE adsorption in water. Bioresource Technology, 118: 536–544. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2012.05.042
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Ahmed, A.M. & Kareem, S.L. 2025. Evaluation of the effectiveness of phytoremediation technologies utilizing Lemna minor in constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment. Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery, 15(7): 10513-10525. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-024-05887-6
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Ajibade, F. & Adewumi, J. 2017. Performance Evaluation of Aquatic Macrophytes in a Constructed Wetland for Municipal Wastewater Treatment. FUTA Journal of Engineering and Engineering Technology, 11: 1–11. https://doi.org/10.51459/futajeet.2017.11.1.113
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Andrade, C.F., Sperling, M.V. & Manjate, E.S. 2017. Treatment of Septic Tank Sludge in a Vertical Flow Constructed Wetland System. Engenharia Agrícola, 37: 811–819. https://doi.org/10.1590/1809-4430-Eng.Agric.v37n4p811-819/2017
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Apaydin-Varol, E., Pütün, E. & Pütün, A.E. 2007. Slow pyrolysis of pistachio shell. Fuel, 86(12): 1892–1899. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2006.11.041
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
APHA Press. 2023. American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, Water Environment Federation. Lipps WC, Braun-Howland EB, Baxter TE, eds. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. 24th ed. Washington DC. https://secure.apha.org/testimis/ItemDetail?iProductCode=978-087553-2998&Category=BK&WebsiteKey=b04418ea-e87d-4d4c-92e8-72c97f1ae2c4
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Apuseyine, E. 2021. Agricultural reuse of domestic wastewater by constructed wetlands using indigenous Ghanaian plants: A pilot-scale field investigation. [Master’s Thesis]. International Centre for Advanced Mediterranean Agronomic Studies, Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Bari, Italy.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Cangola, J., Abagale, F.K., Cobbina, S.J. & Osei, R.A. 2025. Prevalence of antibiotic-resistant enterobacteriaceae in domestic wastewater and associated health risks in reuse practices. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 263: 114478. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2024.114478
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Cao, H. & Yue, X. 2014. Homogenization of Richardsʼ equation of van Genuchten–Mualem model. Journal of Mathematical Analysis and Applications, 412(1): 391–400. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmaa.2013.10.063
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Chen, T., Zhang, Y., Wang, H., Lu, W., Zhou, Z., Zhang, Y. & Ren, L. 2014. Influence of pyrolysis temperature on characteristics and heavy metal adsorptive performance of biochar derived from municipal sewage sludge. Bioresource Technology, 164: 47–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2014.04.048
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Christou, A., Stylianou, M., Georgiadou, E.C., Gedeon, S., Ioannou, A., Michael, C., Papanastasiou, P., Fotopoulos, V. & Fatta-Kassinos, D. 2022. Effects of biochar derived from the pyrolysis of either biosolids, manure or spent coffee grounds on the growth, physiology and quality attributes of field-grown lettuce plants. Environmental Technology & Innovation, 26: 102263. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2021.102263
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Coleman, J., Hench, K., Garbutt, K., Sexstone, A., Bissonnette, G. & Skousen, J. 2001. Treatment of Domestic Wastewater by Three Plant Species in Constructed Wetlands. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 128(3): 283–295. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1010336703606
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Duwiejuah, A.B., Abubakari, A.-H., Quainoo, A.K. & Amadu, Y. 2022. Chemical characteristics of groundnut and sheanut shell biochars as adsorbents and soil conditioners in the era of ecological sustainability. Bio-Research, 20(1): 1461. https://doi.org/10.4314/br.v20i1.7
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Dos Santos, S., Adams, E. A., Neville, G., Wada, Y., de Sherbinin, A., Mullin Bernhardt, E. & Adamo, S.B. 2017. Urban growth and water access in sub-Saharan Africa: Progress, challenges, and emerging research directions. Science of The Total Environment, 607–608: 497–508. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.06.157
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Dotro, G., Langergraber, G., Molle, P., Nivala, J., Puigagut, J., Stein, O. & Von Sperling, M. 2017. Treatment wetlands. IWA publishing.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
García-Pérez, A., Harrison, M. & Grant, B. 2011. Recirculating Vertical Flow Constructed Wetland for On-Site Sewage Treatment: An Approach for a Sustainable Ecosystem. Journal of Water and Environment Technology, 9(1): 39–46. https://doi.org/10.2965/jwet.2011.39
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Giraldi, D. & Iannelli, R. 2009. Measurements of water content distribution in vertical subsurface flow constructed wetlands using a capacitance probe: Benefits and limitations. Desalination, 243(1): 182–194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2008.05.012
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Bilgin, G.F. & Avci, M. 2020. Perennial Warm Season Grasses; Cultivation of Rhodes Grass (Chloris gayana L.) and Dallisgrass (Paspalum dilatatum Poir.).In: Seydosoglu S. (ed.). Innovative Approaches in Meadow-Rangeland and Forage Crops. pp. 177-195.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Gupta, P., Ann, T. & Lee, S.-M. 2016. Use of biochar to enhance constructed wetland performance in wastewater reclamation. Environmental Engineering Research, 21(1): 36–44. https://doi.org/10.4491/eer.2015.067
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Gyasi, E.A., Kranjac-Berisavljevic, G., Fosu, M., Mensah, A.M., Yiran, G. & Fuseini, I. 2014. Managing Threats and Opportunities of Urbanisation for Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Tamale, Ghana. In: Maheshwari, B., Purohit, R., Malano, H., Singh, V.P. & Amerasinghe, P. (eds.). The Security of Water, Food, Energy and Liveability of Cities. Water Science and Technology Library. Springer. 71: 87-97. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8878-6_7
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Kadlec, R.H., & Wallace, S.D. 2009. Treatment wetlands (2nd ed). CRC press.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Kengne, E.S., Kengne, I.M., Nzouebet, W.A.L., Akoa, A., Viet, H.N. & Strande, L. 2014. Performance of vertical flow constructed wetlands for faecal sludge drying bed leachate: Effect of hydraulic loading. Ecological Engineering, 71: 384–393. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2014.07.041
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Lai, W.-L., Zhang, Y. & Chen, Z.-H. 2012. Radial oxygen loss, photosynthesis, and nutrient removal of 35 wetland plants. Ecological Engineering, 39: 24–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2011.11.010
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Luciani, G., Sobanski, M., Meier, M., Polci, P., Miranda, R. & Echenique, V. 2012. Weeping Lovegrass Yield and Nutritive Value Provides an Alternative to Beef Cattle Feeding in Semiarid Environments of Argentina. Crop Science, 52(4): 1955–1965. https://doi.org/10.2135/cropsci2012.02.0118
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Ni, J.J., Bordoloi, S., Shao, W., Garg, A., Xu, G. & Sarmah, A.K. 2020. Two-year evaluation of hydraulic properties of biochar-amended vegetated soil for application in landfill cover system. Science of The Total Environment, 712: 136486. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.136486
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Osei, R.A., Abagale, F.K. & Konate, Y. 2022. Exploitation of indigenous bamboo macrophyte species and bamboo biochar for faecal sludge treatment with constructed wetland technology in the Sudano-Sahelian ecological zone. Heliyon, 8(12): e12386. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e12386
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Pariyar, P., Kumari, K., Jain, M.K. & Jadhao, P.S. 2020. Evaluation of change in biochar properties derived from different feedstock and pyrolysis temperature for environmental and agricultural application. Science of the Total Environment, 713: 136433. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.136433
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Qadir, M., Drechsel, P., Jiménez Cisneros, B., Kim, Y., Pramanik, A., Mehta, P. & Olaniyan, O. 2020. Global and regional potential of wastewater as a water, nutrient and energy source. Natural Resources Forum, 44(1): 40–51. https://doi.org/10.1111/1477-8947.12187
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Quainoo, A.K., Konadu, A. & Kumi, M. 2015. The Potential of Shea Nut Shells in Phytoremediation of Heavy Metals in Contaminated Soil Using Lettuce (Lactuca sativa) as a Test Crop. Journal of Bioremediation & Biodegradation, 6(1): 1-7. https://doi.org/10.4172/2155-6199.1000268
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Stefanakis, A.I. 2020. Constructed Wetlands for Sustainable Wastewater Treatment in Hot and Arid Climates: Opportunities, Challenges and Case Studies in the Middle East. Water, 12(6): 1665. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12061665
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Šimůnek, J., van Genuchten, M. Th. & Šejna, M. 2016. Recent Developments and Applications of the HYDRUS Computer Software Packages. Vadose Zone Journal, 15: 1-25 vzj2016.04.0033. https://doi.org/10.2136/vzj2016.04.0033
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Tanaka, N., Jinadasa, K.B.S.N., Werellagama, D.R.I.B., Mowjood, M.I.M. & Ng, W.J. 2006. Constructed Tropical Wetlands with Integrated Submergent-Emergent Plants for Sustainable Water Quality Management. Journal of Environmental Science and Health, 41(10): 2221–2236. https://doi.org/10.1080/10934520600867581
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Thullen, J.S., Sartoris, J.J. & Nelson, S. M. 2005. Managing vegetation in surface-flow wastewater-treatment wetlands for optimal treatment performance. Ecological Engineering, 25(5): 583–593. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2005.07.013
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Tilak, A.S., Wani, S.P., Patil, M.D. & Datta, A. 2016. Evaluating wastewater treatment efficiency of two field scale subsurface flow constructed wetlands. Current Science, 110(9): 1764–1772.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Tunçsiper, B., Ayaz, S. & Akca, L. 2012. Coliform bacteria removal from septic wastewater in a pilot-scale combined constructed wetland system. Environmental Engineering and Management Journal, 11: 1873–1879. https://doi.org/10.30638/eemj.2012.233
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Udoma, A.W., Richard, A.O. & Shaibu, A. 2024. Potential of sheanut shell biochar as substrate enhancer in vertical flow constructed wetlands treating wastewater for agricultural reuse. 48^th Conference for Students of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine with International Participation, University of Novi Sad, Serbia, pp. 70–75.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Uggetti, E., Llorens, E., Pedescoll, A., Ferrer, I., Castellnou, R. & García, J. 2009. Sludge dewatering and stabilization in drying reed beds: Characterization of three full-scale systems in Catalonia, Spain. Bioresource Technology, 100(17): 3882–3890. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2009.03.047
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Vymazal, J. 2011. Plants used in constructed wetlands with horizontal subsurface flow: A review. Hydrobiologia. 674: 133-156. https://doi.org/10.1007/S10750-011-0738-9
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Wang, Q., Hu, Y., Xie, H. & Yang, Z. 2018. Constructed Wetlands: A Review on the Role of Radial Oxygen Loss in the Rhizosphere by Macrophytes. Water, 10(6): 678. https://doi.org/10.3390/w10060678
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Werner, T.M. & Kadlec, R.H. 2000. Wetland residence time distribution modeling. Ecological Engineering, 15(1): 77–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0925-8574(99)00036-1
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
WHO/UNICEF 2022. Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene (JMP) – Progress on household drinking water, sanitation and hygiene 2000-2022. UN-Water. https://www.unwater.org/publications/who/unicef-joint-monitoring-program-update-report-2023
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Yakubu, A., Udoma, A.W., Sabi, E.B. & Monnie, F. 2023. Waste Water Treatment for Irrigation using Charred Biomass Residue. Science and Development, 5(2): 27–40. https://www.ajol.info/index.php/jsdugs/article/view/240231
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Zhang, X., Zhang, P., Yuan, X., Li, Y. & Han, L. 2020. Effect of pyrolysis temperature and correlation analysis on the yield and physicochemical properties of crop residue biochar. Bioresource Technology, 296: 122318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2019.122318
Search in Google Scholar Back to article