Fig. 1:
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Fig. 4:
Factor loadings (rotated component matrix)
| Factor 1 | Factor 2 | Factor 3 | Factor 4 | Factor 5 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Position on social lifestyle (e.g. homosexuality) (9) | 0.911 | 0.158 | -0.224 | 0.100 | -0.061 |
| Position of the party in terms of their views on democratic freedoms and rights (2) | 0.907 | 0.187 | -0.267 | 0.004 | -0.037 |
| Position towards nationalism (8) | 0.876 | 0.188 | -0.364 | 0.000 | -0.041 |
| Position on civil liberties vs. law and order (8) | 0.845 | 0.308 | -0.319 | -0.052 | -0.043 |
| Position on integration of immigrants and asylum seekers (multi-culturalism vs. assimilation) (3) | 0.830 | 0.358 | -0.321 | 0.047 | 0.000 |
| Position on immigration policy (6) | 0.829 | 0.362 | -0.308 | 0.056 | 0.003 |
| Position on urban vs. rural interests (8) | 0.799 | -0.032 | -0.047 | -0.167 | -0.075 |
| Position towards ethnic minorities (9) | 0.749 | 0.366 | -0.385 | 0.028 | -0.057 |
| Position on improving public services vs. reducing taxes (9) | 0.317 | 0.908 | 0.001 | -0.031 | -0.013 |
| Position on redistribution of wealth from the rich to the poor (8) | 0.263 | 0.933 | 0.066 | -0.019 | -0.031 |
| Position of the party in terms of its ideological stance on economic issues (9) | 0.258 | 0.939 | 0.084 | 0.025 | -0.054 |
| Salience of anti-establishment and anti-elite rhetoric (5) | 0.256 | -0.234 | -0.701 | 0.447 | -0.110 |
| Position on political decentralisation to regions/localities (9) | 0.228 | 0.105 | -0.394 | -0.053 | 0.092 |
| Position on deregulation (6) | 0.172 | 0.954 | 0.133 | -0.004 | -0.013 |
| Degree of dissent on European integration in 2014 (10) | 0.136 | -0.070 | -0.077 | -0.096 | 0.693 |
| Position on state intervention in the economy (9) | 0.126 | 0.954 | 0.117 | 0.009 | -0.041 |
| Relative salience of libertarian/traditional issues in the party’s public (8) | 0.113 | 0.061 | -0.190 | 0.358 | -0.526 |
| Salience of reducing political corruption (5) | 0.054 | -0.142 | 0.036 | 0.890 | -0.005 |
| Position of the party leadership on EU cohesion or regional policy(e.g. the structural funds) (7) | -0.027 | -0.208 | 0.850 | 0.217 | 0.131 |
| Relative salience of European integration in the party’s public stance (3) | -0.251 | 0.307 | 0.208 | 0.573 | -0.171 |
| Position of the party leadership on the internal market (i.e. free movement of goods, services, capital and labour) (7) | -0.262 | 0.363 | 0.810 | -0.044 | 0.123 |
| Position of the party leadership on EU authority over member states’ economic and budgetary policies (7) | -0.287 | 0.225 | 0.864 | 0.058 | -0.018 |
| Relative salience of economic issues in the party’s public stance | -0.319 | 0.028 | 0.136 | 0.171 | 0.746 |
| Overall orientation of the party leadership towards European integration (10) | -0.392 | 0.143 | 0.869 | -0.035 | 0.078 |
| Position of the party leadership on EU foreign and security policy (7) | -0.397 | 0.136 | 0.818 | 0.049 | 0.012 |
Division between centre, right, left and populist parties in 2014 and 2019
| 2014 | 2019 | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Left | Centre | Right | Populist | Left | Centre | Right | Populist | |
| Left | 80 | 0 | 0 | 8 | 85 | 0 | 0 | 9 |
| Centre | 0 | 54 | 0 | 8 | 0 | 60 | 0 | 11 |
| Right | 0 | 0 | 87 | 31 | 0 | 0 | 75 | 37 |
Number of parties per political side in Europe in 2014 and 2019
| 2014 | 2019 | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Western Europe | Central and Eastern Europe | Northern Europe | Southern Europe | Western Europe | Central and Eastern Europe | Northern Europe | Southern Europe | |
| Left | 31 | 21 | 12 | 14 | 30 | 21 | 14 | 15 |
| Centre | 16 | 18 | 7 | 13 | 17 | 29 | 5 | 8 |
| Right | 22 | 36 | 12 | 15 | 17 | 28 | 11 | 14 |
| Populist | 16 | 19 | 4 | 8 | 15 | 25 | 5 | 10 |
Distribution of clusters by political side and regions
| Cluster 1 | Cluster 2 | Cluster 3 | Cluster 4 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Left | 1 | 43 | 6 | 21 |
| Centre | 2 | 27 | 21 | 1 |
| Right | 10 | 23 | 34 | 0 |
| Populist | 31 | 3 | 9 | 10 |
| Western Europe | 13 | 34 | 8 | 11 |
| Central and Eastern Europe | 21 | 34 | 44 | 4 |
| Northern Europe | 4 | 17 | 2 | 3 |
| Southern Europe | 6 | 11 | 16 | 14 |