Renewable Energy Consumption in the European Union: Are Nordic Countries in the Lead?

References
- Araújo, K. M. (2018). Low Carbon Energy Transitions: Turning Points in National Policy and Innovation. Oxford University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199362554.001.0001 - Aslani, A., Antila, E., & Wong, K.-F. V. (2012). Comparative Analysis of Energy Security in the Nordic Countries: The Role of Renewable Energy Resources in Diversification. Journal of Renewable and Sustainable Energy, 4(6), 062701.
https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4765695 - Aslani, A., Helo, P., & Naaranoja, M. (2014). Role of Renewable Energy Policies in Energy Dependency in Finland: System Dynamics Approach. Applied Energy, 113, 758–765.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2013.08.015 - Aslanturk, O., & Kıprızlı, G. (2020). The Role of Renewable Energy in Ensuring Energy Security of Supply and Reducing Energy-Related Import. International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, 10(2), 354–359.
https://doi.org/10.32479/ijeep.8414 - Bąk, A. (2016). Porządkowanie liniowe obiektów metodą Hellwiga i TOPSIS – analiza porównawcza [Linear ordering of objects using Hellwig’s and TOPSIS methods – a comparative analysis]. Prace Naukowe Uniwersytetu Ekonomicznego we Wrocławiu, (426), 22–31.
https://doi.org/10.15611/pn.2016.426.02 - Bali Swain, R., Karimu, A., & Gråd, E. (2022). Sustainable Development, Renewable Energy Transformation and Employment Impact in the EU. International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology, 29(8), 695–708.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13504509.2022.2078902 - Behzadian, M., Otaghsara, S. K., Yazdani, M., & Ignatius, J. (2012). A State-of-the-Art Survey of TOPSIS Applications. Expert Systems with Applications, 39(17), 13051–13069.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2012.05.056 - Brodny, J., Tutak, M., & Bindzár, P. (2021). Assessing the Level of Renewable Energy Development in the European Union Member States. A 10-Year Perspective. Energies, 14(13), 3765.
https://doi.org/10.3390/en14133765 - Demirbaş, A. (2006). Global Renewable Energy Resources. Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects, 28(8), 779–792.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00908310600718742 - Dong, F., Qin, C., Zhang, X., Zhao, X., Pan, Y., Gao, Y., Zhu, J., & Li, Y. (2021). Towards Carbon Neutrality: The Impact of Renewable Energy Development on Carbon Emission Efficiency. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(24), 13284.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182413284 - Ellabban, O., Abu-Rub, H., & Blaabjerg, F. (2014). Renewable Energy Resources: Current Status, Future Prospects and Their Enabling Technology. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 39, 748–764.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.07.113 - Ernst & Young. (2023). Renewable Energy Country Attractiveness Index 62. Retrieved from:
https://www.ey.com/content/dam/ey-unified-site/ey-com/en-gl/insights/energy-resources/documents/ey-recai-62-v9-final.pdf - Esposito, L. (2023). Renewable Energy Consumption and Per Capita Income: An Empirical Analysis in Finland, 209, 558–568 Renewable Energy.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2023.03.139 - European Commission. (2022). REPowerEU Plan. Retrieved from:
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/resource.html?uri=cellar:fc930f14-d7ae-11ec-a95f-01aa75ed71a1.0001.02/DOC_1&format=PDF - European Commission. (2023). The State of Renewable Energies in Europe. Edition 2023 22nd EurObserv’ER Report. Retrieved from:
https://www.eurobserv-er.org/pdf/22nd-annual-overview-barometer/?tmstv=1709223205 - European Parliament and Council. (2009). Directive 2009/28/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009 on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources and amending and subsequently repealing Directives 2001/77/EC and 2003/30/EC. Official Journal of the European Union, L 140, 16–62. Retrieved from:
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32009L0028 - European Parliament and Council. (2018). Directive (EU) 2018/2001 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 December 2018 on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources (recast). Official Journal of the European Union, L 328, 82–209.
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32018L2001 - Eurostat. (2024). Share of Renewable Energy in Gross Final Energy Consumption by Sector, Retrieved from:
https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/sdg_07_40/default/table?lang=en - Firlej, K. A., Firlej, C., & Luty, L. (2023). Economic Growth and Decent Work as a Goal of Sustainable Development in the European Union in the Pre-Pandemic and Pandemic Period. International Entrepreneurship Review, 9(1), 61–76.
https://doi.org/10.15678/ier.2023.0901.05 - Firlej, K. A., Firlej, C., & Luty, L. (2024). Access to Sources of Stable, Sustainable, and Modern Energy as a Goal of Sustainable Development in the European Union: Are the Scandinavian Countries Leading the Energy Transition? Entrepreneurial Business and Economics Review, 12(4), 75–95.
https://doi.org/10.15678/EBER.2024.120405 - Grodzicki, T., & Jankiewicz, M. (2022). The Impact of Renewable Energy and Urbanization on CO2 Emissions in Europe – Spatio-Temporal Approach. Environmental Development, 44, 100755.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2022.100755 - Hansson, L., & Nerhagen, L. (2019). Regulatory Measurements in Policy Coordinated Practices: The Case of Promoting Renewable Energy and Cleaner Transport in Sweden. Sustainability, 11(6), 1687.
https://doi.org/10.3390/su11061687 - Hellwig, Z. (1968). Zastosowanie metody taksonomicznej do typologicznego podziału krajów ze względu na poziom ich rozwoju oraz zasoby i strukturę wykwalifikowanych kadr (Application of The Taxonomic Method to the Typological Division of Countries due to the Level of Their Development and the Resources and Structure of Qualified Personnel). Przegląd Statystyczny, XV(4), 307–327.
- Holma, A., Leskinen, P., Myllyviita, T., Manninen, K., Sokka, L., Sinkko, T., & Pasanen, K. (2018). Environmental Impacts and Risks of the National Renewable Energy Targets – A Review and a Qualitative Case Study From Finland. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 82, 1433–1441.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.146 - Hvelplund, F. (2013). Innovative Democracy, Political Economy, and the Transition to Renewable Energy. A full-Scale Experiment in Denmark 1976–2013. Environmental Research, Engineering and Management, 66(4), 5–21
https://doi.org/10.5755/j01.erem.66.4.6158 - Hwang, C. L., & Yoon, K. (1981). Multiple Attribute Decision Making: Methods and Applications A State-of-the-Art Survey (Lecture Notes in Economics and Mathematical Systems). Springer, Berlin, Germany.
- Hyvönen, J., Koivunen, T., & Syri, S. (2023). Possible Bottlenecks in Clean Energy Transitions: Overview and Modelled Effects – Case Finland. Journal of Cleaner Production, 410, 137317.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.137317 - Johansen, K. (2019). Local Support for Renewable Energy Technologies? Attitudes Towards Local Near-Shore Wind Farms Among Second Home Owners and Permanent Area Residents on the Danish Coast. Energy Policy, 132, 691–701.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2019.04.027 - Johansen, K. (2021). Blowing in the Wind: A Brief History of Wind Energy and Wind Power Technologies in Denmark. Energy Policy, 152, 112139.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2021.112139 - Kacperska, E., Łukasiewicz, K., & Pietrzak, P. (2021). Use of Renewable Energy Sources in the European Union and the Visegrad Group Countries—Results of Cluster Analysis. Energies, 14(18), 5680.
https://doi.org/10.3390/en14185680 - Kilpeläinen, S. (2020). Developing Nordic Cooperation in Renewable Electricity Policy: Exploring Views From Finland and Sweden. Politics and Governance, 8(4), 44–52.
https://doi.org/10.17645/pag.v8i4.3408 - Koljonen, T., Lehtilä, A., Honkatukia, J., & Markkanen, J. (2022). Carbon Neutral Finland by 2035 (HIISI)—Follow-Up Report. Ministry of Economic Affairs and Employment of Finland: Helsinki, Finland, 5.
- Kukuła K. (1989), Statystyczna analiza strukturalna i jej zastosowanie w sferze usług produkcyjnych dla rolnictwa [Statistical Structural Analysis and its Application in the Sphere of Production Services for Agriculture]. Zeszyty Naukowe AE w Krakowie, Seria specjalna, Monografie, 89, Kraków.
- Kukuła, K. (2000). Metoda unitaryzacji zerowanej [The Method of Zero-Standardization]. PWN. Warszawa.
- Kumar Jaiswal, K., Chowdhury, C. R., Yadav, D., Verma, R., Dutta, S., Jaiswal, K. S., Sangmesh & SelvaKumar, K. K. (2022). Renewable and Sustainable Clean Energy Development and Impact on Social, Economic, and Environmental Health. Energy Nexus, 7, 100118.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nexus.2022.100118 - Latoszek, E., & Wójtowicz, A. (2020). The Energy Sector in Selected EU Member States on the Example of Austria, Germany, Poland and Sweden – Current Status and Development Perspectives. Studia Europejskie - Studies in European Affairs, 1(24), 67–82.
https://doi.org/10.33067/se.1.2020.4 - Lindgren, O., Hahn, T., Karlsson, M., & Malmaeus, M. (2023). Exploring Sufficiency in Energy Policy: Insights From Sweden. Sustainability: Science, Practice and Policy, 19(1), 2212501.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15487733.2023.2212501 - Meyer, N. I. (2004). Renewable Energy Policy in Denmark. Energy for Sustainable Development, 8(1), 25–35.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0973-0826(08)60388-9 - Młodak, A. (2006). Analiza taksonomiczna w statystyce regionalnej [Taxonomical Analyse in the Regional Statistics]. Difin. Warszawa.
- Mortensen, H. B. (2018). The Valuation History of Danish Wind Power: The Ongoing Struggle of a Challenger Technology to Prove its Worth to Society. Aalborg Universitetsforlag, Aalborg, Denmark.
https://doi.org/10.5278/vbn.phd.tech.00040 - Neterowicz, J. (2020). Rozwój Energetyki Rozproszonej w Szwecji. Praktyczna implementacja zasad zrównoważonego rozwoju w oparciu o lokalne zasoby i klastry energetyczne. Energetyka Rozproszona (3), 9–14. Retrieved from:
https://journals.agh.edu.pl/er/article/view/4726 - Noja, G. G., Cristea M, Panait M, Trif SM & Ponea CȘ (2022) The Impact of Energy Innovations and Environmental Performance on the Sustainable Development of the EU Countries in a Globalized Digital Economy. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 10, 934404.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.934404 - Pacesila, M., Burcea, S. G., & Colesca, S. E. (2016). Analysis of Renewable Energies in European Union. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 56, 156–170.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.10.152 - Panwar, N. L., Kaushik, S. C., & Kothari, S. (2011). Role of Renewable Energy Sources in Environmental Protection: A Review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 15(3), 1513–1524.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2010.11.037 - Paravantis, J., & Kontoulis, N. (2020). Energy Security and Renewable Energy: A Geopolitical Perspective. In: M. Al Qubeissi, A. El-kharouf, & H. Soyhan (Eds.), Renewable energy - resources, challenges and applications. IntechOpen.
https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/71552 - Paukku, E. (2021). How Could Finland Promote Renewable-Energy Technology Innovation and Implementation? Clean Energy, 5(3), 447–463.
https://doi.org/10.1093/ce/zkab024 - Shah, M. I., Kirikkaleli, D., & Adedoyin, F. F. (2021). Regime Switching Effect of COVID-19 Pandemic on Renewable Electricity Generation in Denmark. Renewable Energy, 175, 797–806.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2021.05.028 - Shan, Y., & Lü, X. (2021). Ending fossil fuels addiction. In: X. Lü (Eds.), Advances in 2nd Generation of Bioethanol Production (pp. 229–242). Woodhead Publishing, Sawston, Cambridge, UK..
https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-818862-0.00008-x - Simionescu, M., Bilan, Y., Krajňáková, E., Streimikiene, D., & Gędek, S. (2019). Renewable Energy in the Electricity Sector and GDP per Capita in the European Union. Energies, 12(13), 2520.
https://doi.org/10.3390/en12132520 - Simionescu, M., Strielkowski, W., & Tvaronavičienė, M. (2020). Renewable Energy in Final Energy Consumption and Income in the EU-28 Countries. Energies, 13(9), 2280.
https://doi.org/10.3390/en13092280 - Stec, M., & Grzebyk, M. (2022). Statistical Analysis of the Level of Development of Renewable Energy Sources in the Countries of the European Union. Energies, 15(21), 8278.
https://doi.org/10.3390/en15218278 - Temmes, A., Heiskanen, E., Matschoss, K., & Lovio, R. (2021). Mobilising Mainstream Finance for a Future Clean Energy Transition: The Case of Finland. Journal of Cleaner Production, 319, 128797.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.128797 - Triantaphyllou, E. (2000). Multi-criteria decision making methods: A comparative study. Springer, New York, USA.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-3157-6 - Trifonov, I., Trukhan, D., Koshlich, Y., Prasolov, V., & Ślusarczyk, B. (2021). Influence of the Share of Renewable Energy Sources on the Level of Energy Security in EECCA Countries. Energies, 14(4), 903.
https://doi.org/10.3390/en14040903 - Tutak, M., & Brodny, J. (2022). Renewable Energy Consumption in Economic Sectors in the EU-27. The Impact on Economics, Environment and Conventional Energy Sources. A 20-Year Perspective. Journal of Cleaner Production, 345, 131076.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.131076 - Wang, J.-J., Jing, Y.-Y., Zhang, C.-F., & Zhao, J.-H. (2009). Review on Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis Aid in Sustainable Energy Decision-Making. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 13(9), 2263–2278.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2009.06.021 - Wang, W. H., Espinosa, V. I., & Huerta de Soto, J. (2022). A Free-Market Environmentalist Enquiry on Spain’s Energy Transition along with Its Recent Increasing Electricity Prices. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(15), 9493.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19159493 - Zakhidov, R. A. (2008). Central Asian Countries Energy System and Role of Renewable Energy Sources. Applied Solar Energy, 44(3), 218–223.
https://doi.org/10.3103/s0003701x08030201 - Zavadskas, E. K., & Turskis, Z. (2011). Multiple Criteria Decision Making (MCDM) Methods in Economics: An Overview. Technological and Economic Development of Economy, 17(2), 397–427.
https://doi.org/10.3846/20294913.2011.593291 - Zhang, M., Yang, Z., Liu, L., & Zhou, D. (2021). Impact of Renewable Energy Investment on Carbon Emissions in China - An Empirical Study Using a Nonparametric Additive Regression Model. Science of the Total Environment, 785, 147109.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.147109 - Zhong, J., Bollen, M., & Rönnberg, S. (2021). Towards a 100% Renewable Energy Electricity Generation System in Sweden. Renewable Energy, 171, 812–824.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2021.02.153
Language: English
Page range: 172 - 191
Submitted on: Nov 3, 2025
Accepted on: Apr 21, 2026
Published on: Jun 20, 2026
Published by: Faculty of Economic Sciences, University of Warsaw
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services
Publication frequency: 1 issue per year
Keywords:
Related subjects:
© 2026 Krzysztof Adam Firlej, published by Faculty of Economic Sciences, University of Warsaw
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.