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Punching shear Prediction of Flat slabs Reinforced with FRP Bars Cover

Punching shear Prediction of Flat slabs Reinforced with FRP Bars

Open Access
|Sep 2026

Figures & Tables

Table 1:

Statistical description of the main parameters in the database

VariablesMeanStandard deviationMinimumMaximumRange
d [mm]143.443.580.0285.0205.0
fc′ [MPa]41.9514.521.198.377.2
ρf [%]0.930.540.153.763.6
Ef [GPa]66.6931.4928.4160.0131.6
Vtest [kN]443.83303.4779.01600.01521.0
Figure 1:

Frequency and normal distribution of the data

Figure 2:

Violin plot distributions of the test parameters

Figure 3:

Workflow diagram of the proposed machine learning model development

Figure 4:

Flowchart of XGBoost algorithm

Figure 5:

Flowchart of RF algorithm

Figure 6:

Global feature contribution analysis of the XGbooting model using SHAP values

Figure 7:

Heatmap visualization comparing the performance of punching shear prediction models based on the overall experimental database using R2, C.O.V., MAE, and RMSE

Table 2:

Performance evaluation metrics of the proposed machine learning (ML) models for the training and testing datasets

Proposed TechniqueTrainingTesting
R2 [-]Avg. [-]STD. [-]C.O.V [%]MAE [kN]RMSE [kN]R2 [-]Avg. [-]STD. [-]C.O.V [%]MAE [kN]RMSE [kN]
S.R0.8021.0190.2890.28193.237130.040.8121.0330.2690.261103.15146.16
R.F0.9760.9890.0890.09031.44846.1640.8901.0210.2220.21768.459103.90
XGBoost0.9780.9960.0700.07021.23445.2620.9151.0660.2210.20763.54987.931
Figure 8:

Box plot comparison of punching shear strength ratio for existing design equations and ML models

Figure 9:

Violin plot comparison of punching shear strength ratio for existing design equations and ML models

Figure 10:

Test versus predicted punching shear capacity of flat slab reinforced with FRP bars for all investigated models

Table A.1:

Details of Flat slab test data from literature

No.SourceTypeIDLength(L1)Width (L2)Loading aread fc′ ρfEVtest
Specif.[mm][mm]C1 [mm]C2 [mm][mm]MPa[%][GPa][kN]
1(Louka, 1999)GFRP13000180057522517543141.3500
2GFRP23000180057522517543141.31050
3GFRP33000180057522517543139.3875
4GFRP43000180057522517543139.31090
5GFRP53000180057522517543139.31180
6CFRPC1300018005752251755511001000
7CFRPC2300018005752251755511001200
8CFRPC3300018005752251755511001328
9CFRPH2300018005752251754511601055
10CFRPH4300018005752251754511601096
11CFRPH4300018005752251754511601183
12(Matthys & Taerwe, 2000)CFRPC1100010001501509636.70.2791.8181
13CFRPC1’100010002302309637.30.2791.8189
14CFRPC2100010001501509535.71.0595255
15CFRPC2’100010002302309536.31.0595273
16CFRPC31000100015015012633.80.5292347
17CFRPC3’1000100023023012634.30.5292343
18CFRPCS100010001501509532.60.19148142
19CFRPCS’100010002302309533.20.19148150
20C&GH2100010001501508935.83.7640.7231
21C&GH2’1000100080808935.93.7640.7171
22C&GH31000100015015012232.11.2244.8237
23C&GH3’10001000808012232.11.2244.8217
24(Rahman et al., 2000)GFRP120002500250150162420.2885622
25GFRP220002500250150162420.2885698
26GFRP320002500250150162420.2885575
27GFRP420002500250150162420.2885534
28GFRP520002500250150162420.2885584
29(Hassan et al., 2000)GFRP118003000575225165590.571471000
30GFRP218003000575225165590.571471200
31GFRP318003000575225165590.571471328
32(El-Ghandour et al., 2003)GFRPSG120002000200200142320.1845170
33CFRPSC12000200020020014232.80.15110229
34GFRPSG22000200020020014246.40.3845271
35GFRPSG32000200020020014230.40.3845237
36CFRPSC22000200020020014229.60.35110317
37(Zaghloul et al., 2003)GFRPF1150015002002008237.41.146165
38GFRPF215001500200200112330.8146170
39GFRPF3150015002002008238.21.2946210
40GFRPF4150015002002008239.71.5446230
41GFRPF5150015002003008230.31.146168
42GFRPF6150015002004008229.41.146185
43(Ospina et al., 2003)GFRPGFR-12150215025025012029.50.7334217
44GFRPGFR-22150215025025012028.91.4634260
45GFRPNEF-12150215025025012037.50.8728.4206
46(Hussein et al., 2004)GFRPG-S118301830250250100401.1842249
47GFRPG-S218301830250250100351.0542218
48GFRPG-S318301830250250100291.6742240
49GFRPG-S418301830250250100260.9542210
50(Jacobson et al., 2005)GFRP123002000635250161380.9833537
51GFRP223002000635250161370.9833536
52GFRP323002000635250161370.9533531
53GFRP743002000635250161340.9833721
54GFRP843002000635250161510.9833897
55(El-Gamal et al., 2005a)GFRPG-S13000250060025015949.6144.6740
56GFRPG-S23000250060025015944.31.9938.5712
57GFRPG-S33000250060025015649.21.2146.5732
58CFRPC-S13000250060025016549.60.35122.5674
59CFRPC-S23000250060025016544.30.69122.5799
60(Zhang et al., 2005)CFRPCS119001900250250100310.41120251
61CFRPCS219001900250250100330.54120293
62CFRPCS31900190025025010025.70.75120285
63CFRPCSHD11900190025025010035.90.54120325
64CFRPCSHD21900190025025010038.60.75120360
65CFRPCSHS11900190025025015085.60.36120399
66CFRPCHSHS21900190025025015098.30.5120446
67(El-Tom, 2007)GFRP11900190025025011066.8141282
68GFRP219001900250250110621.241319
69GFRP319001900250250110641.541384
70GFRP419001900250250160641.241589
71GFRP51900190025025014570.11.241487
72GFRP61900190025025013567.61.241437
73(Zaghloul, 2007)CFRPZJEF117601760250250120251.37100188.3
74CFRPZJEF21760176025025012026.20.94100155.9
75CFRPZJEF31760176025025012056.81.37100210.9
76CFRPZJEF5176017602502508128.41.3710097.1
77CFRPZJEF71760176042025012027.81.37100196.2
78(El-Gamal et al., 2007)GFRPG-S43000250060025017544.11.244.5707
79GFRPG-S53000250060025017544.11.244.5735
80(Lee et al., 2009)GFRPGFU12300230022522511036.31.1748.2222
81GFRPGFB22300230022522511036.32.1448.2246
82GFRPGFB32300230022522511036.3348.2248
83GFRPGFBF32300230022522511033.8348.2330
84BFRPS31500150015015013533.50.29100145
85BFRPS41500150015015013535.60.55100275
86(Zhu et al., 2011)BFRPS51500150015015013532.80.42100235
87BFRPS61500150015015013532.50.42100225
88BFRPS71500150015015013522.60.42100170
89BFRPS81500150015015013541.80.42100235
90BFRPS91500150015015013540.60.42100200
91(Bouguerra et al., 2011)GFRPG-200-N3000250060025016549.11.244.5732
92GFRPG-175-Na3000200060025014335.21.241.6484
93GFRPG-150-N3000200060025011835.21.241.6362
94GFRPG-175-H3000200060025014364.81.241.6704
95GFRPG-175-N-0.73000200060025014353.10.741.6549
96GFRPG-175-N-0.353000200060025014353.10.3541506
97CFRPC-175-N3000200060025014540.30.4122530
98(Zhu et al., 2012)GFRPA1500150015015013022.20.4245.6176
99GFRPB-21500150015015013032.50.4245.6209
100GFRPB-31500150015015013032.40.5545.6245
101GFRPB-41500150015015013032.80.2945.6167
102GFRPC1500150015015013044.40.4245.6252
103(Nguyen-Minh & Rovňák, 2013)GFRPGSL-PUNC-0.422002200200200129390.4848180
104GFRPGSL-PUNC-0.622002200200200129390.6848212
105GFRPGSL-PUNC-0.822002200200200129390.9248248
106(Dulude et al., 2013)GFRPG (0.7) 30/202500250030030013034.30.7148.2329
107GFRPG (1.6) 30/202500250030030013038.61.5648.1431
108GFRPG (0.7) 45/202500250045045013544.90.7148.2400
109GFRPG (1.6) 45/202500250045045013032.41.5648.1504
110GFRPG (0.3) 30/352500250030030028534.30.3448.2825
111GFRPG (0.7) 30/352500250030030028039.40.7348.11071
112GFRPG (0.3) 45/352500250045045028548.60.3448.2911
113GFRPG (0.7) 45/352500250045045028029.60.7348.11248
114(Hassan et al., 2013a)GFRPG (1.6) 30/20-H2500250030030013175.81.5657.4547
115GFRPG (1.2) 30/202500250030030013137.51.2164.9438
116GFRPG (1.6) 30/352500250030030027538.21.6156.71492
117GFRPG (1.6) 30/35-H2500250030030027575.81.6156.71600
118(Hassan et al., 2013b)GFRPG (0.7) 30/20-B25002500300300134390.7148.2386
119GFRPG (1.6) 30/20-B25002500300300131321.5648.1451
120GFRPG (1.6) 45/20-B25002500450450131391.5648.1511
121GFRPG (0.3) 30/35-B25002500300300284390.3448.2782
122GFRPG (0.7) 30/35-B-125002500300300281300.7348.11027
123GFRPG (0.7) 30/35-B-225002500300300281470.7348.11195
124GFRPG (0.3) 45/35-B25002500450450284320.3448.21020
125(El-Gendy & El-Salakawy, 2015)GFRPGSC-0.9-XX-0.428001500300300160410.960.5251
126GFRPGSC-1.35-XX-0.428001500300300160411.3560.5268
127GFRPGSC-1.8-XX-0.428001500300300160411.760.5277
128GFRPGSC-0.9-XX-0.228001500300300160410.8560.5239
129GFRPGSC-0.9-XX-0.328001500300300160410.960.5159
130GFRPGRD-0.9-XX-0.428001500300300160410.959.9191
131(Tharmarajah et al., 2015)GFRPG-0.6%-12-125 T&B14255005002511968.10.667.4344
132GFRPG-0.6%-16-300 T&B14255005002511765.70.667.4365
133GFRPB-0.6%-12-125 T&B14255005002511969.30.654300
134GFRPB-0.6%-16-300 T&B14255005002511766.10.654295
135(Mostafa, 2016)GFRPGSC-0.9-XX-0.426001450300300160810.8760.5251
136GFRPGSC-1.35-XX-0.526001450300300160851.2860.5272
137GFRPGSC-1.8-XX-0.426001450300300160801.760.5288
138(Elgabbas et al., 2016)BFRPS2-B3000200060025016048.80.869.3548
139BFRPS3-B3000200060025016042.20.7969.3665
140BFRPS4-B3000200060025016042.20.869.3566
141BFRPS5-B3000200060025016047.91.269.3716
142BFRPS6-B3000200060025016047.90.469.3576
143BFRPS7-B3000200060025016047.90.469.3436
144(Gouda & El-Salakawy, 2016a)GFRPGN-0.6526002600300300160420.6569.3363
145GFRPGN-0.9826002600300300160380.9868378
146GFRPGN-1.3026002600300300160391.368425
147GFRPGH-0.6526002600300300160700.6568380
148(Gouda & El-Salakawy, 2016b)GFRPG-00-XX26002600300300160380.6568421
149GFRPG-30-XX26002600300300160420.6568296
150GFRPR-15-XX26002600300300160400.6563.1320
151(Oskouei et al., 2017)GFRPNW59800800250250176590.743719
152(Ju et al., 2018)GFS1GFRP3000240030050017136.71.5746.7410
153GFS2GFRP3000240030050017136.71.246.7360
154GFS3GFRP3000240030050017136.70.7946.7370
155Al Ajami, 2018GFRPG150(200)471700170020020094470.9652.5199
156GFRPG250(160)5217001700200200191520.9352.5617.2
157GFRPG250(100)5317001700200200191531.0152.5479.3
158GFRPG150(200)351700170020020094350.9652.5167.8
159GFRPG250(160)3717001700200200191370.9352.5520
160(Hussein & El-Salakawy, 2018)GFRPH-1.0-XX28002800300300160800.9865461
161GFRPH-1.5-XX28002800300300160841.4665541
162GFRPH-2.0-XX28002800300300160871.9365604
163(Hemzah et al., 2019)CFRPC-F-S-10-460060010010080510.3144103
164CFRPC-F-S-10-660060010010080520.45144127
165CFRPS-F-D-10-460060010010080460.6144112
166CFRPS-F-S-10-460060010010080520.314479
167CFRPS-F-S-10-660060010010080480.45144107
168(Huang et al., 2020)CFRPF116001600200200125250.89123262
169(Gu, 2020)A30-1GFRP150015003003008827.41.2851.1191
170A30-2GFRP1500150030030010827.31.0551.1289
171A30-3GFRP1500150030030013826.20.8251.1413
172A30-4GFRP150015003503508626.81.3151.1209
173A40-1GFRP150015003503508828.21.2851.1232
174A40-2GFRP150015003503508826.40.8951.1221
175A40-3GFRP150015003003008828.61.2851.1236
176A50-1GFRP150015003003008829.21.2851.1253
177A50-2GFRP150015003003009032.20.8754.1237
178A50-3GFRP150015003503508826.71.2851.1280
179(Eladawy et al., 2020)G4(1.06)-HGFRP25002500300300151921.0662.6134
180(Salihi & Hamad, 2023)B16(0.88)Basalt2000200025025013429.80.8848.3295.5
181B16(1.77)Basalt2000200025025013429.81.7748.3405.2
182B12(0.88)Basalt2000200025025013829.80.8848290.1
183B12(0.88)-C35Basalt2000200025025013834.60.8848295.8
184B12(0.88)-C25Basalt2000200025025013821.10.8848238.1
185(Alkhattabi et al., 2024)G-0.20-0.70GFRP2500250030030014434.30.748.1329
186G-0.20-1.60GFRP2500250030030014438.61.648.1431
187G-0.35-0.30GFRP2500250030030024434.30.348.1825
188G-0.35-0.70GFRP2500250030030024439.40.748.11071
189(Elnady et al., 2024)6-G-S1GFRP15001500250600117380.8363.7365.6
1909-G-S1GFRP1500150025060011744.91.2563.7391.6
19112-G-S1GFRP1500150025060011741.41.6763.7431.6
1926-G-S2GFRP1500150025060011743.10.8363.7477.1
193(Khdir & Yaseen, 2024)BR1.5E0Basalt2000120025025011830.90.4451.6137.2
194BR2.5E0Basalt2000120025025011830.90.73351.6158.8
195BR3.5E0Basalt2000120025025011430.91.02651.6172.3
196(Dinh et al., 2025)GFRPF-S802000200030030016225.20.9850443.2
197GFRPF-S1202000200030030016232.60.6550429
198GFRPF-S1502000200030030016232.60.5250328.4
199GFRPF-S120-B162000200030030015924.11.0450415.2
200GFRPF-S80-L22000200030030016224.10.7250393.9
201GFRPF-S120-C202000200020020016225.20.6550334.7
202GFRPF-S120-C452000200045045016224.10.6550504.3
203GFRPF-S120-A2.02000200030015016225.20.6550350
204GFRPF-S120-A1.52000200045030016224.10.6550438.8
Table A.2:

Experimental punching shear capacities and corresponding Vtest/Vpred ratios for the empirical equations and machine learning models

No.Vtest [kN] VtestVEq.1 VtestVEq.2 VtestVEq.3 VtestVEq.4 VtestVEq.5 VtestVEq.8 VtestVEq.9 VtestVEq.10 VtestVEq.11 VtestVEq.12 VtestVEq.13 VtestVXGB VtestVRF VtestVEq.18
1500.01.000.810.800.830.770.730.951.440.900.951.040.640.620.70
21050.02.091.711.671.741.621.531.993.011.882.002.171.351.301.46
3875.01.771.461.421.451.381.301.682.511.591.701.840.840.851.24
41090.02.211.821.761.801.711.622.103.131.982.112.291.041.051.54
51180.02.391.971.911.951.851.752.273.392.152.292.481.131.141.67
61000.01.370.961.091.521.021.041.301.901.331.311.420.850.860.98
71200.01.641.161.311.831.221.251.562.281.601.571.701.021.031.17
81328.01.821.281.452.021.351.391.722.521.771.741.891.131.141.30
91055.01.320.861.051.721.020.971.251.731.201.261.370.991.050.93
101096.01.370.891.091.791.051.011.301.801.251.311.421.031.090.96
111183.01.480.961.181.931.141.091.401.941.351.421.541.111.171.04
12181.01.561.291.241.681.441.131.672.571.651.761.461.010.991.41
13189.01.381.151.101.501.280.901.512.041.411.401.301.021.011.26
14255.01.411.171.131.551.310.951.522.541.491.601.321.021.091.44
15273.01.291.061.021.411.190.771.412.071.301.301.211.111.251.31
16347.01.651.281.321.791.451.151.653.231.691.881.601.111.161.47
17343.01.431.111.141.551.250.891.442.501.401.451.371.401.361.27
18142.01.240.950.991.571.170.901.332.181.331.401.160.980.901.08
19150.01.110.850.881.411.050.721.221.741.141.121.041.000.940.97
20231.01.221.180.971.001.150.761.332.101.301.371.131.021.061.40
21171.01.061.030.850.881.010.781.162.161.201.411.010.921.021.22
22237.01.151.020.920.981.030.761.162.211.191.311.111.020.991.11
23217.01.211.060.961.031.070.911.222.681.301.581.280.970.971.16
24622.02.151.581.712.261.702.022.023.102.072.202.191.091.081.53
25698.02.411.781.922.541.912.272.263.482.322.472.451.221.211.71
26575.01.991.461.582.091.571.871.862.871.912.032.021.001.001.41
27534.01.841.361.471.941.461.731.732.661.781.891.880.930.931.31
28584.02.021.491.612.131.601.901.892.911.942.062.051.021.021.43
291000.01.531.031.221.941.141.221.482.541.541.461.590.850.871.06
301200.01.841.231.472.331.371.461.783.051.851.761.911.021.041.28
311328.02.031.361.622.581.521.621.973.372.051.942.111.131.151.41
32170.01.110.940.890.950.961.021.081.171.061.141.120.980.860.88
33229.01.170.860.941.351.001.101.141.561.111.201.181.050.980.91
34271.01.221.030.971.040.991.151.191.551.241.251.230.930.891.06
35237.01.231.040.981.051.071.081.201.681.181.261.241.031.011.03
36317.01.270.921.011.461.101.111.232.271.221.301.281.031.111.05
37165.01.181.140.941.011.131.001.362.061.211.201.160.850.851.25
38170.00.920.830.740.800.840.780.961.600.910.940.920.900.880.88
39210.01.411.371.131.221.351.191.632.421.471.431.381.031.011.53
40230.01.441.391.151.241.371.211.662.431.511.461.411.041.051.58
41168.01.161.120.921.001.150.891.371.881.191.111.160.960.971.34
42185.01.171.130.931.011.170.861.421.821.181.071.201.010.991.45
43217.01.171.080.930.911.060.921.211.701.141.121.171.051.061.07
44260.01.121.040.890.871.020.851.161.831.091.081.121.011.101.09
45206.01.030.980.820.750.900.831.061.440.980.991.031.011.010.97
46249.01.231.150.981.021.110.991.352.031.221.171.221.040.891.25
47218.01.171.090.930.971.080.921.281.951.131.121.160.960.901.17
48240.01.171.090.930.981.110.881.291.831.171.121.170.930.951.20
49210.01.281.201.021.071.240.971.412.131.311.231.280.940.911.24
50537.01.291.111.030.991.040.901.271.701.111.201.350.960.970.91
51536.01.301.121.041.001.050.901.281.721.111.211.360.980.990.91
52531.01.301.121.041.001.050.911.281.701.111.211.361.000.990.91
53721.01.801.551.431.381.481.231.772.411.541.671.881.331.381.26
54897.01.951.691.561.501.501.431.922.451.861.812.041.011.101.41
55740.01.511.251.211.291.171.111.492.141.441.381.571.011.061.11
56712.01.261.071.011.021.000.881.241.751.151.151.310.991.040.97
57732.01.421.171.131.231.111.041.412.061.351.301.481.021.041.07
58674.01.330.921.061.591.021.041.291.861.261.221.391.180.870.89
59799.01.310.901.041.561.020.971.272.141.191.201.361.050.970.91
60251.01.351.061.081.601.271.101.482.441.331.291.340.991.011.24
61293.01.411.101.121.661.311.151.552.741.381.351.401.001.041.33
62285.01.331.051.061.581.291.021.462.511.361.281.330.971.061.27
63325.01.521.191.211.791.391.251.672.941.461.451.511.061.071.44
64360.01.471.151.171.741.331.211.622.741.451.411.461.081.091.44
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82248.00.810.730.650.710.730.630.861.230.780.800.810.930.960.87
83330.01.110.990.880.971.010.851.171.681.081.091.101.101.091.18
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105248.00.990.850.790.860.840.860.991.770.971.010.991.021.030.93
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108400.01.100.930.880.960.900.801.161.431.030.911.160.960.921.01
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1111071.01.320.941.061.160.931.061.082.051.201.231.421.000.981.01
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1131248.01.501.061.201.311.101.031.242.191.321.251.601.001.081.11
114547.01.160.960.921.070.880.981.182.111.351.061.171.481.301.20
115438.01.221.000.981.181.040.931.251.841.131.121.241.001.041.17
1161492.01.390.961.111.280.981.061.142.131.251.291.491.021.131.13
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120511.01.181.010.941.031.000.801.261.601.060.971.241.041.081.15
121782.01.230.860.981.070.861.021.001.481.111.131.310.980.880.87
1221027.01.380.981.101.211.011.051.132.241.261.281.481.000.951.03
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1241020.01.511.061.201.321.091.091.241.691.311.261.611.031.021.05
125251.00.590.460.470.550.470.460.560.930.540.540.601.211.200.52
126268.00.550.430.440.520.440.420.530.830.510.500.561.020.990.51
127277.00.530.410.420.500.420.400.500.770.480.480.541.010.990.49
128239.00.570.450.460.540.460.450.550.910.530.530.580.931.050.51
129159.00.370.290.300.350.300.290.360.590.340.340.380.770.760.33
130191.00.450.350.360.420.360.350.430.710.410.410.460.930.950.40
131344.01.180.980.941.150.931.071.231.741.372.041.191.001.040.54
132365.01.301.081.041.271.041.171.361.921.492.241.301.091.150.60
133300.01.100.950.881.000.871.001.151.501.281.901.110.980.970.51
134295.01.130.970.901.020.901.011.181.551.291.941.131.070.970.52
135251.00.470.370.380.450.340.420.450.720.550.440.481.000.810.45
136272.00.450.350.360.420.320.390.430.760.520.410.450.950.760.43
137288.00.440.340.350.410.310.370.420.800.500.400.450.980.830.43
138548.01.040.790.831.020.810.771.021.510.980.951.080.980.940.75
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148421.01.090.830.871.060.880.861.041.750.981.001.111.031.060.94
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150320.00.830.650.660.790.670.660.801.300.760.760.851.011.030.72
151719.01.701.371.351.431.251.521.572.371.771.641.741.021.021.49
152410.00.730.590.590.630.590.510.701.030.630.630.760.990.860.76
153360.00.710.570.560.610.560.500.671.020.600.600.730.880.790.71
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155199.01.101.010.880.990.980.981.211.951.201.121.081.060.991.14
156617.21.230.940.981.100.901.121.102.171.231.261.271.010.941.07
157479.30.920.700.730.830.670.840.831.650.930.940.950.790.730.81
158167.81.030.940.820.920.960.871.131.791.031.041.010.970.921.04
159520.01.160.890.921.040.901.001.042.051.041.191.200.990.990.98
160461.00.820.630.650.790.590.720.791.330.950.750.841.041.160.78
161541.00.830.640.660.800.590.720.791.410.970.760.851.051.150.82
162604.00.830.650.670.810.590.710.801.400.990.770.850.991.160.84
163103.00.940.750.751.180.861.081.051.901.151.140.901.211.050.92
164127.01.000.810.801.260.911.131.122.081.241.220.961.111.071.02
165112.00.840.670.671.050.780.910.941.670.991.020.800.971.000.87
16679.00.710.570.570.900.650.820.801.440.880.870.690.930.810.70
167107.00.870.700.691.090.800.970.971.791.041.060.830.980.970.88
168262.00.940.690.751.120.860.750.951.840.950.960.930.991.230.85
169191.01.040.970.830.931.040.751.231.951.050.951.060.870.921.08
170289.01.311.161.041.171.230.951.432.381.281.201.321.061.091.26
171413.01.501.251.191.331.341.101.502.531.421.371.521.441.321.32
172209.01.081.010.860.961.080.741.311.941.080.951.120.920.941.12
173232.01.151.080.921.031.140.801.392.081.141.021.200.930.911.19
174221.01.271.181.011.131.270.891.531.911.271.121.321.020.961.26
175236.01.271.191.011.131.250.921.501.911.271.161.291.011.021.31
176253.01.351.261.081.201.330.981.592.041.351.241.381.041.041.40
177237.01.331.231.061.211.281.001.562.101.311.221.351.061.011.34
178280.01.421.321.131.261.410.981.712.051.421.251.471.101.081.46
179134.00.240.190.190.230.170.220.240.390.300.220.250.780.530.24
180295.51.140.970.911.001.010.891.141.911.091.101.151.061.031.04
181405.21.241.050.991.091.090.931.241.911.181.201.251.291.411.19
182290.11.080.910.860.940.940.851.071.801.021.041.091.010.980.97
183295.81.050.880.840.910.890.841.041.770.971.011.060.900.920.95
184238.11.000.840.790.870.920.740.991.631.000.961.000.980.900.87
185329.01.110.920.880.970.940.861.101.661.001.021.130.990.920.98
186431.01.060.880.850.920.880.801.051.600.970.971.081.111.041.01
187825.01.761.291.401.541.301.441.492.011.551.631.860.850.781.27
1881071.01.651.201.311.441.191.311.392.441.481.521.731.000.991.29
189365.61.130.950.901.080.990.801.251.621.031.031.190.920.941.34
190391.61.000.840.800.960.850.711.111.380.960.911.050.980.961.24
191431.61.030.860.820.980.880.711.141.370.960.941.081.001.031.30
192477.11.411.181.131.351.211.031.562.051.341.291.481.111.061.69
193137.20.770.670.610.690.690.630.801.080.740.740.770.910.880.68
194158.80.750.650.600.670.680.600.781.250.720.720.750.980.930.69
195172.30.760.670.610.680.690.590.801.240.740.730.760.910.870.73
196443.21.241.000.991.101.080.901.191.931.161.141.271.021.041.07
197429.01.271.021.011.121.050.981.211.901.141.171.301.041.051.08
198328.41.050.840.830.920.870.821.001.460.940.961.070.910.860.87
199415.21.190.960.951.051.040.851.141.831.121.091.211.041.021.03
200393.91.241.000.991.101.080.911.192.001.171.141.271.000.981.04
201334.71.240.990.981.091.071.021.162.151.201.261.260.920.901.03
202504.31.381.111.101.221.200.911.361.961.251.141.451.011.011.15
203350.01.251.000.991.101.081.001.172.111.201.241.270.760.920.87
204438.81.311.051.041.161.140.911.271.951.211.131.351.000.940.98
AVG443.81.190.970.941.130.990.951.191.841.161.171.211.001.001.02
STD302.70.360.290.280.390.290.300.350.550.340.380.370.110.120.28
Min79.00.240.190.190.230.170.220.240.390.300.220.250.620.530.24
Max1600.02.411.971.922.571.912.272.273.482.322.472.481.481.411.71
EquationSourceEquationSource
Eq.1(Matthys & Taerwe, 2000)Eq.10ACI 440.11-22
Eq.2(Ospina et al., 2003)Eq.11JSCE-97
Eq.3(El-Ghandour et al. (2003)Eq.12CAN/CSA S806-12
Eq.4(Jacobson et al., 2005)Eq.13EN 1992-1-1 (2023)
Eq.5El-Gamal et al., 2005a)XGBeXtreme Gradient Boosting model
Eq.8(Hemzah et al., 2019)RFRandom Forest model
Eq.9Ju et.al (2021)Eq.18Symbolic Regression Technique
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/cee-2027-0020 | Journal eISSN: 2199-6512 (formerly 1336-5835) | Journal ISSN: 1336-5835
Language: English
Submitted on: Jul 9, 2026
Accepted on: Aug 21, 2026
Published on: Sep 17, 2026
Published by: University of Žilina
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services
Publication frequency: 4 issues per year

© 2026 Zahir Noori M. Taki, Ahmed Faleh Al-Bayati, published by University of Žilina
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.