Skip to main content
Have a personal or library account? Click to login
Protecting dual-use technological innovation through trade secret law: institutional limits and cybersecurity challenges Cover

Protecting dual-use technological innovation through trade secret law: institutional limits and cybersecurity challenges

By:   
Open Access
|Oct 2026

References

  1. Aplin, T. (2013) ‘Reverse engineering and commercial secrets’, Current Legal Problems, 66(1), pp. 341–377. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/clp/cut004
  2. Aplin, T., Radauer, A., Bader, M.A. and Searle, N. (2023) ‘The role of EU trade secrets law in the data economy: an empirical analysis’, IIC – International Review of Intellectual Property and Competition Law, 54, pp. 826–858. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40319-023-01325-8
  3. Bone, R.G. (2011) ‘Trade secrecy, innovation, and the requirement of reasonable secrecy precautions’, in R.C. Dreyfuss and K.J. Strandburg (eds) The law and theory of trade secrecy: a handbook of contemporary research. Edward Elgar Publishing, pp. 9–40. Available at: https://doi.org/10.4337/9780857933072.00010
  4. Civil Code (France) 1804. Code civil. Légifrance, consolidated text. Available at: https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/codes/texte_lc/LEGITEXT000006070721/ (Accessed: 17 January 2026).
  5. ‘CK v. Dun & Bradstreet Austria GmbH’ (2025) Case C-203/22. Judgement of the Court, 27 February. Available at: https://curia.europa.eu/juris/liste.jsf?num=C-203/22 (Accessed: 23 January 2026).
  6. Commercial Code (France) 1807. Code de commerce. Légifrance, consolidated text. Available at: https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/codes/texte_lc/LEGITEXT000005634379/2026-01-11 (Accessed: 18 January 2026).
  7. Competition Act (Estonia) 2001. Konkurentsiseadus (KonkS). RT I, 18 November 2025, 2. Available at: https://www.riigiteataja.ee/akt/118112025002 (Accessed: 30 January 2026).
  8. Constitution of the Republic of Estonia 1992. Eesti Vabariigi põhiseadus. RT 1992, 26, 349. Available at: https://www.riigiteataja.ee/akt/115052015002 (Accessed: 21 January 2026).
  9. ‘Council directive (EU) 2016/943 of 8 June 2016 on the protection of undisclosed know-how and business information (trade secrets) against their unlawful acquisition, use and disclosure’ (2016) Official Journal L 157, pp. 1–18. Available at: http://data.europa.eu/eli/dir/2016/943/oj
  10. Court of Cassation (France) (2025) Case No. 23-10.953. Judgement, 5 February. Available at: https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/juri/id/JURITEXT000051151441 (Accessed: 18 January 2026).
  11. Cundiff, V.A. (2009) ‘Reasonable measures to protect trade secrets in a digital environment’, IDEA – The Intellectual Property Law Review, 49(3), pp. 359–410. Available at: https://ipmall.law.unh.edu/sites/default/files/hosted_resources/IDEA/idea-vol49-no3-cundiff.pdf (Accessed: 18 January 2026).
  12. Duguin, S. and Pavlova, P. (2023) The role of cyber in the Russian war against Ukraine: its impact and the consequences for the future of armed conflict. European Parliament Think Tank Briefing. 4 September. Available at: https://www.europarl.europa.eu/thinktank/en/document/EXPO_BRI(2023)702594 (Accessed: 26 December 2025).
  13. Employment Contracts Act (Estonia) 2008. Töölepingu seadus (TLS). RT I, 23 December 2024, 6. Available at: https://www.riigiteataja.ee/akt/123122024006 (Accessed: 30 January 2026).
  14. EUIPO (2023) Trade secrets litigation trends in the EU: IPR enforcement case-law collection. EUIPO Publishing. Available at: https://www.euipo.europa.eu/en/publications/trade-secrets-litigation-trends-in-the-eu (Accessed: 3 January 2026).
  15. Farkas, T. and Koch, P. (2016) ‘The disclosure–fair trial dilemma when enforcing trade secrets in civil court proceedings’, Journal of Intellectual Property Law & Practice, 11(12), pp. 901–909. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/jiplp/jpw153
  16. Federal Labour Court (Germany) (2024) Case No. 8 AZR 172/23. Judgement of the Eighth Senate, 17 October. Available at: https://openjur.de/u/2499874.html (Accessed: 29 December 2025).
  17. Fox, B. (2020) ‘Tripping over the EU Trade Secret Directive: “reasonable steps” to get back on track’, Chicago-Kent ǀ Journal of Intellectual Property, 19(1), pp. 68–92. Available at: https://scholarship.kentlaw.iit.edu/ckjip/vol19/iss1/11 (Accessed: 15 December 2025).
  18. Civil Code (Germany) 1896. Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch (BGB). Bundesgesetzblatt, consolidated text. Available at: https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/bgb/ (Accessed: 19 December 2025).
  19. Gougé, E. and Truchot-Bothner, A.C. (2019) ‘The Trade Secrets Directive—France’, Les Nouvelles – Journal of the Licensing Executives Society, 54(3), pp. 187–189. Available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3420351 (Accessed: 29 December 2025).
  20. Higher Regional Court of Düsseldorf (2021) Case No. 15 U 6/20. Judgement of the 15th Civil Senate, 11 March. Available at: https://openjur.de/u/2363217.html (Accessed: 18 January 2026).
  21. Higher Regional Court of Stuttgart (2020) Case No. 2 U 575/19. Judgement of the Second Civil Senate, 19 November. Available at: https://openjur.de/u/2348225.html (Accessed: 29 December 2025).
  22. Hoeren, T. (2018) ‘The EU Directive on the protection of trade secrets and its relation to current provisions in Germany’, Journal of Intellectual Property, Information Technology and Electronic Commerce Law, 9(2), pp. 138–145. Available at: https://www.jipitec.eu/jipitec/article/view/223 (Accessed: 22 December 2025).
  23. Hull, J. (2019) ‘Protecting trade secrets: how organisations can meet the challenge of taking “reasonable steps”’, WIPO Magazine, 1 October, pp. 35–39. Available at: https://www.wipo.int/en/web/wipo-magazine/articles/protecting-trade-secrets-how-organizations-can-meet-the-challenge-of-taking-reasonable-steps-41043 (Accessed: 18 January 2026).
  24. ISO (2022) ISO/IEC 27001:2022: Information security, cybersecurity and privacy protection – Information security management systems – Requirements. International Organization for Standardization. Available at: https://www.iso.org/standard/27001 (Accessed: 30 January 2026).
  25. Labour Code (France) 1910. Code du travail. Légifrance, consolidated text. Available at: https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/codes/texte_lc/LEGITEXT000006072050/ (Accessed: 17 January 2026).
  26. Law of 30 July 2018 on the protection of trade secrets (France) 2018. Loi n° 2018-670 du 30 juillet 2018 relative à la protection du secret des affaires. Légifrance. Available at: https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/jorf/id/JORFTEXT000037262111 (Accessed: 18 January 2026).
  27. Law of Obligations Act (Estonia) 2001. Võlaõigusseadus (VÕS). RT I, 11 November 2025, 16. Available at: https://www.riigiteataja.ee/akt/111112025016 (Accessed: 30 January 2026).
  28. Law on the Protection of Trade Secrets (Germany) 2019. Gesetz zum Schutz von Geschäftsgeheimnissen (GeschGehG). Bundesgesetzblatt, consolidated text. Available at: https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/geschgehg/BJNR046610019.html (Accessed: 19 December 2025).
  29. Menell, P.S., Lemley, M.A. and Merges, R.P. (2016) Intellectual property in the new technological age: 2016—Chapters 1 and 2, Stanford Public Law Working Paper, No. 2780190. Available at: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2780190
  30. Niebel, R., de Martinis, L. and Clark, B. (2018) ‘The EU Trade Secrets Directive: all change for trade secret protection in Europe?’ Journal of Intellectual Property Law & Practice, 13(6), pp. 445–457. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/jiplp/jpx227
  31. Ohly, A. (2020) ‘Germany: the Trade Secrets Protection Act of 2019’, in J. Schovsbo, T. Minssen and T. Riis (eds) The harmonisation and protection of trade secrets in the EU. Edward Elgar Publishing, pp. 103–123. Available at: https://doi.org/10.4337/9781788973342.00012
  32. Peer, N. and Baram, G. (2026) ‘Blurred lines: the expanding role of the private sector in wartime cyber operations—the case of the Russia–Ukraine war’, Cyber Security: A Peer-Reviewed Journal, 9(3), pp. 239–254. Available at: https://doi.org/10.69554/PPXU2105
  33. Põld, L. (2025) ‘Patent disclosure vs technological security: balancing Western innovation protection in a geopolitical conflict’, International Comparative Jurisprudence, 11(1), pp. 32–46. Available at: https://doi.org/10.13165/j.icj.2025.11.004
  34. Rantasaari, K. (2023) ‘Patent litigation in Europe: intermediate fee shifting and the UPC’, Journal of Intellectual Property Law & Practice, 18(9), pp. 642–654. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/jiplp/jpad063
  35. Regional Court of Munich I (2019) Case No. 7 O 3890/19. Order of 13 August. Available at: https://openjur.de/u/2275835.html (Accessed: 29 December 2025).
  36. Restriction of Unfair Competition and Protection of Business Secrets Act (Estonia) 2018. Ebaausa konkurentsi takistamise ja ärisaladuse kaitse seadus (EKTÄKS). RT I, 7 December 2018, 2. Available at: https://www.riigiteataja.ee/akt/107122018002 (Accessed: 30 January 2026).
  37. Riis, T. and Schovsbo, J. (2019) ‘To be and not to be an IPR—the protection of trade secrets in the EU’, European Intellectual Property Review, forthcoming. University of Copenhagen Faculty of Law Research Paper No. 2019-71. Available at: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3347705
  38. Rutiku, S. (2025) ‘Akadeemiline vabadus ja teadusjulgeolek on lahutamatud’ [Academic freedom and research security are inseparable], ERR, 23 November. Available at: https://www.err.ee/1609862760/siret-rutiku-akadeemilinevabadus-ja-teadusjulgeolek-on-lahutamatud (Accessed: 22 December 2025).
  39. Schröder, V. and Widera, P. (2021) ‘Obtaining evidence in patent litigation and trade secret protection—a tale of two poles’, GRUR International, 70(4), pp. 361–376. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/grurint/ikaa161
  40. Supreme Court of Estonia (2009) Case No. 3-1-1-46-09. Judgement of the Criminal Chamber, 8 June. Available at: https://www.riigikohus.ee/et/lahendid?asjaNr=3-1-1-46-09 (Accessed: 20 December 2025).
  41. Supreme Court of Estonia (2020a) Case No. 1-18-4590. Judgement of the Criminal Chamber, 15 May. Available at: https://www.riigikohus.ee/et/lahendid?asjaNr=1-18-4590/82 (Accessed: 20 December 2025).
  42. Supreme Court of Estonia (2020b) Case No. 2-19-9918. Judgement of the Civil Chamber, 21 October. Available at: https://www.riigikohus.ee/et/lahendid?asjaNr=2-19-9918/31 (Accessed: 20 December 2025).
  43. Unfair Competition Act (Germany) 2004. Gesetz gegen den unlauteren Wettbewerb (UWG). Bundesgesetzblatt, consolidated text. Available at: https://www.gesetzeim-internet.de/uwg_2004/BJNR141400004.html (Accessed: 19 December 2025).
  44. Van Caenegem, W. (2013) Trade secrets and intellectual property: breach of confidence, misappropriation and unfair competition. Kluwer Law International. Available at: https://tind.wipo.int/record/27344 (Accessed: 23 January 2026).
  45. Van Dijk, N. (2017) ‘Legal theory: from intellectual property to informational goods’, in N. van Dijk (ed) Grounds of the immaterial: a conflict-based approach to intellectual rights. Edward Elgar Publishing, pp. 5–32. Available at: https://doi.org/10.4337/9781786432506.00007
  46. Varadarajan, D. (2014) ‘Trade secret fair use’, Fordham Law Review, 83(3), pp. 1401–1454. Available at: https://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/flr/vol83/iss3/9 (Accessed: 3 January 2026).
  47. Värv, A. (2020) ‘Ärisaladuse kaitse uus nägu’ [The new face of trade secret protection], Juridica, 5, pp. 419–428.
  48. Värv, A., Pisuke, H., Mets, T., E. Vasamäe and Kelli, A. (2010) ‘Trade secrets in the intellectual property strategies of entrepreneurs: the Estonian experience’, Review of Central and East European Law, 35(5), pp. 315–339. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1163/157303510X12650378240476
  49. Würtenberger, G. (2019) ‘Protection of trade secrets and know-how in the European Union: the EU Trade Secrets Directive (EU) 2016/943’, IP-Iurisdictio. Available at: https://ip-iurisdictio.org/protection-of-trade-secrets-and-know-how-in-the-european-union-the-eu-trade-secrets-directive-eu-2019-943/#_ftn23 (Accessed: 11 January 2026).
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/bjes-2026-0028 | Journal eISSN: 2674-4619 (formerly 2228-0596) | Journal ISSN: 2674-4600 (formerly 2228-0596)
Language: English
Page range: 354 - 378
Published online: Oct 25, 2026
Published in print: Dec 1, 2026
Published by: Tallinn University of Technology
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services

© 2026 Lisette Põld, published by Tallinn University of Technology
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 3.0 License.