Skip to main content
Have a personal or library account? Click to login
Current trends in drug resistance of pathogens isolated from poultry and the use of commercial phage preparations to control infections Cover

Current trends in drug resistance of pathogens isolated from poultry and the use of commercial phage preparations to control infections

Open Access
|Oct 2026

References

  1. Aarestrup, F. M., Seyfarth, A. M., Emborg, H. D., Pedersen, K., Hendriksen, R. S., & Bager, F. (2001). Effect of abolishment of the use of antimicrobial agents for growth promotion on occurrence of antimicrobial resistance in fecal enterococci from food animals in Denmark. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 45(7), 2054–2059. https://doi.org/10.1128/AAC.45.7.2054-2059.2001
  2. Abdalrahman, L. S., Stanley, A., Wells, H., & Fakhr, M. K. (2015). Isolation, virulence, and antimicrobial resistance of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA) strains from Oklahoma retail poultry meats. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 12, 6148–6161. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120606148
  3. Abdel-Rahman, M. A. A., Hamed, E. A., Abdelaty, M. F., Sorour, H. K., Badr, H., Hassan, W. M., Shalaby, A. G., Mohamed, A. A., Soliman, M. A., & Roshdy, H. (2023). Distribution pattern of antibiotic resistance genes in Escherichia coli isolated from colibacillosis cases in broiler farms of Egypt. Veterinary World, 16(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.14202/vetworld.2023.1-11
  4. Abou-Jaoudeh, C., Andary, J., & Abou-Khalil, R. (2024). Antibiotic residues in poultry products and bacterial resistance: A review in developing countries. Journal of Infection and Public Health, 17(12), 102592. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiph.2024.102592
  5. Abraham, S., Sahibzada, S., Hewson, K., Laird, T., Abraham, R., Pavic, A., Truswell, A., Lee, T., O’Dea, M., & Jordan, D. (2020). Emergence of fluoroquinolone-resistant Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli among Australian chickens in the absence of fluoroquinolone use. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 86, e02765-19. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.02765-19
  6. Abunna, F., Adugna, B., Tufa, T., Ayana, D., Gutema, F., Waktole, H., Regassa, F., & Abdi, R. (2022). Detection and antimicrobial resistance of Staphylococcus species from chicken, chicken litter, and humans in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Veterinary Medicine International, 25, 9084334. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/9084334
  7. Ahmed, R., Fathy, M., Al-Azeem, M., Elghoneimy, A., & Mohamed, I. (2021). Staphylococcus aureus in poultry: Prevalence and antibiogram of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in avian species in the Southern Provinces of Egypt. Egyptian Journal of Microbiology, 56, 89–98. https://doi.org/10.21608/ejm.2021.65178.1191
  8. Ahmed, W. A., Hotzel, H., Neubauer, H., El-Tawab, A. A. A., Tomaso, H., Sobhy, M. M., & El Hofy, F. I. (2020). Antimicrobial resistance genes associated with enterococci from poultry in Egypt: First reporting of mecA in Enterococcus from poultry source. Advances in Animal and Veterinary Sciences, 8(6), 570–581. https://doi.org/10.17582/journal.aavs/2020/8.6.570.581
  9. Aksono, E. B., Riwu, K. H. P., Estoepangestie, A. T. S., & Pertiwi, H. (2020). Phylogenetic analysis and antibiotics resistance of Listeria monocytogenes contaminating chicken meat in Surabaya, Indonesia. Veterinary Medicine International, 1, 9761812. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/9761812
  10. Al Hakeem, W. G., Fathima, S., Shanmugasundaram, R., & Selvaraj, R. K. (2022). Campylobacter jejuni in poultry: Pathogenesis and control strategies. Microorganisms, 10, 2134. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms10112134
  11. Alexyuk, M., Alexyuk, P., Moldakhanov, Y., Akanova, K., & Bogoyavlenskiy, A. (2024). Evaluation of phage cocktail efficacy for controlling infections caused by pathogenic Escherichia coli in in vivo experiments. BIO Web of Conferences, 100, 02004. https://doi.org/10.1051/bioconf/202410002004
  12. Aljuhaishi, D. A., & Albawi, F. H. K. (2024). Using bacteriophage in poultry diet as therapeutics against Escherichia coli in broiler chickens. Journal of Animal Health and Production, 12(S1), 23–31. https://doi.org/10.17582/journal.jahp/2024/12.s1.23.31
  13. Alomari, M. M. M., Dec, M., & Urban-Chmiel, R. (2021). Bacteriophages as an alternative method for control of zoonotic and foodborne pathogens. Viruses, 13(12), 2348. https://doi.org/10.3390/v13122348
  14. Amoako, D. G., Somboro, A. M., Abia, A. L. K., Molechan, C., Perrett, K., Bester, L. A., & Essack, S. Y. (2020). Antibiotic resistance in Staphylococcus aureus from poultry and poultry products in uMgungundlovu District, South Africa, using the “farm to fork” approach. Microbial Drug Resistance, 26(4), 402–411. https://doi.org/10.1089/mdr.2019.0201
  15. Annex E – EUSR on AMR in zoonotic and indicator bacteria from humans, animals and food 2022/2023. (2025). Annex E – Data reported on MRSA from food-producing animals and derived meat. Zenodo. https://zenodo.org/records/14645440/files/Annex%20E%20MRSA_food_animals_EFSA-ECDC_EUSR_AMR_2022-2023.pdf? download = 1
  16. Antonelli, A., D’Andrea, M. M., Brenciani, A., Galeotti, C. L., Morroni, G., Pollini, S., Varaldo, P. E., & Rossolini, G. M. (2018). Characterization of poxtA, a novel phenicol-oxazolidinone-tetracycline resistance gene from an MRSA of clinical origin. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 73(7), 1763–1769. https://doi.org/10.1093/jac/dky088
  17. Ao, T. T., Feasey, N. A., Gordon, M. A., Keddy, K. H., Angulo, F. J., & Crump, J. A. (2015). Global burden of invasive nontyphoidal Salmonella disease, 2010. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 21(6), 941–949. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2106.140999
  18. Aras, Z., & Ardıç, M. (2015). Occurrence and antibiotic susceptibility of Listeria species in Turkey meats. Korean Journal for Food Science of Animal Resources, 35(5), 669–673. https://doi.org/10.5851/kosfa.2015.35.5.669
  19. Arias, C. A., & Murray, B. E. (2012). The rise of the Enterococcus: Beyond vancomycin resistance. Nature Reviews Microbiology, 10(4), 266–278. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro2761
  20. Aslantaş, Ö. (2019). Molecular and phenotypic characterization of enterococci isolated from broiler flocks in Turkey. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 51(5), 1073–1082. https://doi.org/://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-018-01784-z
  21. Aziz, S. A. A. A., & Mohamed, M. B. E. D. (2020). Prevalence, virulence genes, and antimicrobial resistance profile of Listeria monocytogenes isolated from retail poultry shops in Beni-Suef city, Egypt. Journal of Advanced Veterinary and Animal Research, 7(4), 710–717. https://doi.org/10.5455/javar.2020.g472
  22. Bae, D., Lee, J.-W., Chae, J.-P., Kim, J.-W., Eun, J.-S., Lee, K.-W., & Seo, K.-H. (2021). Characterization of a novel bacteriophage φCJ22 and its prophylactic and inhibitory effects on necrotic enteritis and Clostridium perfringens in broilers. Poultry Science, 100, 302–313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psj.2020.10.019
  23. Bager, F., Madsen, M., Christensen, J., & Aarestrup, F. M. (1997). Avoparcin used as a growth promoter is associated with the occurrence of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium on Danish poultry and pig farms. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 31(1–2), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-5877(96)01119-1
  24. Becker, K., van Alen, S., Idelevich, E. A., Schleimer, N., Seggewiß, J., Mellmann, A., Kaspar, U., & Peters, G. (2018). Plasmid-encoded transferable mecB-mediated methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 24(2), 242–248. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2402.171074
  25. Becker, K., Both, A., Weißelberg, S., Heilmann, C., & Rohde, H. (2020). Emergence of coagulase-negative staphylococci. Expert Review of Anti-infective Therapy, 18(4), 349–366. https://doi.org/10.1080/14787210.2020.1730813
  26. Ben Yahia, H., Trabelsi, I., Arous, F., García-Vela, S., Torres, C., & Ben Slama, K. (2024). Detection of linezolid and vancomycin resistant Enterococcus isolates collected from healthy chicken caecum. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 135(2), lxae027. https://doi.org/10.1093/jambio/lxae027
  27. Benrabia, I., Hamdi, T., Shehata, A., Neubauer, H., & Wareth, G. (2020). Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in poultry species in Algeria: Long-term study on prevalence and antimicrobial resistance. Veterinary Sciences, 7(2), 54. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci7020054
  28. Berhilevych, O., Peh, E., Vahle, J. C., Plötz, M., & Kittler, S. (2026). Phage-based biocontrol of Salmonella and E. coli in raw chicken filets: Optimizing phage-based solutions to enhance food safety under cooled storing conditions. Frontiers in Microbiology, 16, 1696826. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2025.1696826
  29. Bobrek, K., & Gaweł, A. (2023). Antimicrobial resistance of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae strains isolated from geese to antimicrobials widely used in veterinary medicine. Antibiotics, 12(8), 1339. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics12081339
  30. Bobrek, K., Nowak, M., Borkowska, J., Bobusia, K., & Gaweł, A. (2016). An outbreak of erysipelas in commercial geese. Pakistan Veterinary Journal, 36(3), 372–374.
  31. Bogun, K., Peh, E., Meyer-Kühling, B., Hartmann, J., Hirnet, J., Plötz, M., & Kittler, S. (2024). Investigating bacteriophages as a novel multiple-hurdle measure against Campylobacter: Field trials in commercial broiler plants. Scientific Reports, 14(1), 3182. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-53365-w
  32. Borges, K. A., Furian, T. Q., Souza, S. N., Salle, C. T. P., Moraes, H. L. S., & Nascimento, V. P. (2019). Antimicrobial resistance and molecular characterization of Salmonella enterica serotypes isolated from poultry sources in Brazil. Brazilian Journal of Poultry Science, 21(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1590/1806-9061-2018-0827
  33. Bortolaia, V., Mander, M., Jensen, L. B., Olsen, J. E., & Guardabassi, L. (2015). Persistence of vancomycin resistance in multiple clones of Enterococcus faecium isolated from Danish broilers 15 years after the ban of avoparcin. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 59(5), 2926–2929. https://doi.org/10.1128/AAC.05072-14
  34. Boulbair, I., Hu, J., Hammoudi, A., Zhang, B., Aissat, S., Wang, X., Foudil, M., & Wang, S. (2025). Molecular characterization and antibiotic resistance of avian pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC) isolates from broiler chickens in Algeria. Animals, 15, 3324. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15223324
  35. Bzdil, J., Sladecek, V., Senk, D., Stolar, P., Waicova, Z., Kollertova, N., Zouharova, M., Matiaskova, K., Linhart, P., & Nedbalcova, K. (2023). Enterococci isolated from one-day-old chickens and their phenotypic susceptibility to antimicrobials in the Czech Republic. Antibiotics, 12(10), 1487. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics12101487
  36. Cao, S., Yang, W., Zhu, X., Liu, C., Lu, J., Si, Z., Pei, L., Zhang, L., Hu, W., Li, Y., Wang, Z., Pang, Z., Xue, X., & Li, Y. (2022). Isolation and identification of the broad-spectrum high-efficiency phage vB_SalP_LDW16 and its therapeutic application in chickens. BMC Veterinary Research, 18(1), 386. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-022-03490-3
  37. Casalino, G., Bozzo, G., Dinardo, F. R., D’Amico, F., Dimuccio, M. M., Camarda, A., Ceci, E., Romito, D., & Circella, E. (2022). Prevalence and antimicrobial resistance of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli from laying hens housed in different rearing systems. Animals, 12, 2978. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12212978
  38. Cason, E. E., Carlson, A. V., Siemens, A. L., & Shariat, N. W. (2024). High-resolution serotyping reveals Salmonella surveillance challenges in the turkey industry. Journal of Food Protection, 87(10), 100319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfp.2024.100319
  39. Charpentier, E., & Courvalin, P. (1999). Antibiotic resistance in Listeria spp. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 43(9), 2103–2108. https://doi.org/10.1128/AAC.43.9.2103
  40. Chen, C., & Wu, F. (2021). Livestock-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (LA-MRSA) colonisation and infection among livestock workers and veterinarians: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 78(1), 530–540. https://doi.org/10.1136/oemed-2020-106418
  41. Chen, P., Cheng, F., Huang, Q., Dong, Y., Sun, P., & Peng, Q. (2024). Distribution and antimicrobial resistance characterization of Listeria monocytogenes in poultry meat in Jiading District, Shanghai. Journal of Food Protection, 87(3), 100234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfp.2024.100234
  42. Chinivasagam, H. N., Estella, W., Maddock, L., Mayer, D. G., Weyand, C., Connerton, P. L., & Connerton, I. F. (2020). Bacteriophages to control Campylobacter in commercially farmed broiler chickens, in Australia. Frontiers in Microbiology, 11, 632. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2020.00632
  43. Chu, Y., Wang, D., Hao, W., Sun, R., Sun, J., Liu, Y., & Liao, X. (2024). Prevalence, antibiotic resistance, virulence genes and molecular characteristics of Salmonella isolated from ducks and wild geese in China. Food Microbiology, 118, 104423. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fm.2023.104423
  44. Clewell, D. B., Weaver, K. E., Dunny, G. M., Coque, T. M., Francia, M. V., & Hayes, F. (2014). Extrachromosomal and mobile elements in enterococci: Transmission, maintenance, and epidemiology. In M. S. Gilmore et al. (Eds.) Enterococci: From Commensals to Leading Causes of Drug Resistant Infection. Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary.
  45. Concha-Toloza, M., Lopez-Cantillo, M., Molina-Mora, J. A., & Collado, L. (2023). Genomic characterization of antibiotic-resistant Campylobacterales isolated from Chilean poultry meat. Antibiotics, 12, 917. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics12050917
  46. Council of the European Union (2023). Council Recommendation of 13 June 2023 on stepping up EU actions to combat antimicrobial resistance in a One Health approach. Official Journal of the European Union, C 220, 1–20.
  47. D’Angelantonio, D., Scattolini, S., Boni, A., Neri, D., Di Serafino, G., Connerton, P., Connerton, I., Pomilio, F., Di Giannatale, E., Migliorati, G., & Aprea, G. (2021). Bacteriophage therapy to reduce colonization of Campylobacter jejuni in broiler chickens before slaughter. Viruses, 13(8), 1428. https://doi.org/10.3390/v13081428
  48. da Silva, A. C., Rodrigues, M. X., & Silva, N. C. C. (2020). Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in food and the prevalence in Brazil: A review. Brazilian Journal of Microbiology, 51(1), 347–356. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42770-019-00168-1
  49. da Silva, Ó., De Sá Barreto Maia Leite, D., Barbosa, I., Silva, V., De Oliveira Silva, M., Da Silva, A., Moreira, M., De Moura, A., Barros, M., & Mota, R. (2025). Phenotypic and genotypic resistance of Staphylococcus aureus in fresh meats marketed in Pernambuco, Brazil. Food Science and Technology, 45, e00462. https://doi.org/10.5327/fst.00462
  50. Davam, H., Jansson, D. S., Nord, E., Rydén, J., & Hansson, I. (2026). Antibiotic susceptibility and resistance genes in Escherichia coli from broilers reared in a low-antibiotic-use production system. Poultry Science, 105, 106764. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psj.2026.106764
  51. de Melo, A. G., Levesque, S., & Moineau, S. (2018). Phages as friends and enemies in food processing. Current Opinion in Biotechnology, 49, 185–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copbio.2017.09.004
  52. Dec, M., Wernicki, A., & Urban-Chmiel, R. (2020). Efficacy of experimental phage therapies in livestock. Animal Health Research Reviews, 21, 69–83. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1466252319000161
  53. Dec, M., Nowak, T., Webster, J., & Wódz, K. (2024a). Serotypes, antimicrobial susceptibility, and potential mechanisms of resistance gene transfer in Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae strains from waterfowl in Poland. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 25, 12192. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms252212192
  54. Dec, M., Zomer, A., Webster, J., Nowak, T., Stępień-Pyśniak, D., & Urban-Chmiel, R. (2024b). Integrative and conjugative elements and prophage DNA as carriers of resistance genes in Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae strains from domestic geese in Poland. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 25(9), 4638. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25094638
  55. Dec, M., Zomer, A. L., Broekhuizen-Stins, M. J., & Urban-Chmiel, R. (2026). Prophage φEr670 and genomic island GI_Er147 as carriers of resistance genes in Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae strains. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 27(1), 250. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms27010250
  56. Delahoy, M. J., Shah, H. J., Weller, D. L., Ray, L. C., Smith, K., McGuire, S., Trevejo, R. T., Scallan Walter, E., Wymore, K., Rissman, T., McMillian, M., Lathrop, S., LaClair, B., Boyle, M. M., Harris, S., Zablotsky-Kufel, J., Houck, K., Devine, C. J., Lau, C. E., Tauxe, R. V., Bruce, B. B., Griffin, P. M., & Payne, D. C. (2023). Preliminary incidence and trends of infections caused by pathogens transmitted commonly through food – Foodborne Diseases Active Surveillance Network, 10 U.S. sites, 2022. MMWR Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 72, 701–706. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm7226a1
  57. Di Taranto, P., Petruzzi, F., Normanno, G., Pedarra, C., Occhiochiuso, G., Faleo, S., Didonna, A., Galante, D., Pace, L., Rondinone, V., Trisolini, C., Del Sambro, L., Beverelli, M., Catanzariti, R., Caruso, M., Palazzo, L., Di Castri, A., & Parisi, A. (2025). Prevalence and antimicrobial resistance of Salmonella strains isolated from chicken samples in Southern Italy. Microorganisms, 13(2), 270. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms13020270
  58. Dlamini, S. B., Mlambo, V., Mnisi, C. M., & Ateba, C. N. (2024). Virulence, multiple drug resistance, and biofilm-formation in Salmonella species isolated from layer, broiler, and dual-purpose indigenous chickens. PLoS One, 19(10), e0310010. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0310010
  59. Dong, H., Zhu, S., Sun, F., Feng, Q., Guo, C., Wu, Z., Wu, S., Wang, A., & Yu, S. (2024). Comparative analysis of antimicrobial resistance phenotype and genotype of Riemerella anatipestifer. Veterinary Microbiology, 292, 110047. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2024.110047
  60. Efenberger-Szmechtyk, M., & Nowak, A. (2025). Bacteriophage power: Next-gen biocontrol strategies for safer meat. Molecules, 30, 3641. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules30173641
  61. EFSA Panel on Biological Hazards (BIOHAZ), Koutsoumanis, K., Allende, A., Álvarez-Ordóñez, A., Bolton, D., Bover-Cid, S., Chemaly, M., Davies, R., De Cesare, A., Herman, L., Hilbert, F., Lindqvist, R., Nauta, M., Ru, G., Simmons, M., Skandamis, P., Suffredini, E., Argüello, H., Berendonk, T., Cavaco, L. M., Gaze, W., Schmitt, H., Topp, E., Guerra, B., Liébana, E., Stella, P., & Peixe, L. (2021). Role played by the environment in the emergence and spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) through the food chain. EFSA Journal, 19(6), e06651. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2021.6651
  62. Elghaieb, H., Freitas, A. R., Abbassi, M. S., Novais, C., Zouari, M., Hassen, A., & Peixe, L. (2019). Dispersal of linezolid-resistant enterococci carrying poxtA or optrA in retail meat and food-producing animals from Tunisia. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 74(10), 2865–2869. https://doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkz263
  63. Elsayed, M. M., El-Basrey, Y. F. H., El-Baz, A. H., Dowidar, H. A., Shami, A., Al-Saeed, F. A., Alsamghan, A., Salem, H. M., Alhazmi, W. A., El-Tarabily, K. A., & Khedr, M. H. E. (2024). Ecological prevalence, genetic diversity, and multidrug resistance of Salmonella enteritidis recovered from broiler and layer chicken farms. Poultry Science, 103(2), 103320. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psj.2023.103320
  64. Endersen, L., & Coffey, A. (2020). The use of bacteriophages for food safety. Current Opinion in Food Science, 36, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cofs.2020.10.006
  65. Eriksson, H., Wattrang, E., Söderlund, R., & Jansson, D. S. (2025). Erysipelas – A review of an emerging disease in layers. Avian Diseases, 68(S1), 506–520. https://doi.org/10.1637/aviandiseases-D-24-00076
  66. European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control, European Food Safety Authority, & European Medicines Agency (2024). Antimicrobial consumption and resistance in bacteria from humans and food-producing animals. EFSA Journal, 22(2), e8589. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2024.8589
  67. European Food Safety Authority (2016). Evaluation of the safety and efficacy of Listex™ P100 for reduction of pathogens on different ready-to-eat (RTE) food products. EFSA Journal, 14, e04565. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2016.4565
  68. European Food Safety Authority, & European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (2023a). The European Union summary report on antimicrobial resistance in zoonotic and indicator bacteria from humans, animals and food in 2020/2021. EFSA Journal, European Food Safety Authority, 21(3), e07867. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2023.7867
  69. European Food Safety Authority, & European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (2023b). The European Union One Health 2022 Zoonoses Report. EFSA Journal, 21(12), e8442. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2023.8442
  70. European Food Safety Authority, & European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (2024a). The European Union summary report on antimicrobial resistance in zoonotic and indicator bacteria from humans, animals and food in 2021–2022. EFSA Journal, 22, e8583. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2024.8583
  71. European Food Safety Authority, & European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (2024b). The European Union One Health 2023 Zoonoses report. EFSA Journal, 22(12), e9106. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2024.9106
  72. European Food Safety Authority, & European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (2025a). The European Union summary report on antimicrobial resistance in zoonotic and indicator bacteria from humans, animals and food in 2022–2023. EFSA Journal. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2025.9237
  73. European Food Safety Authority, & European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (2025b). The European Union One Health 2024 Zoonoses Report. EFSA Journal, 23(12), e9759. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2025.9759
  74. European Food Safety Authority, & European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (2025c). The European Union summary report on antimicrobial resistance in zoonotic and indicator bacteria from humans, animals and food in 2023–2024. EFSA Journal. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2026.9887
  75. European Medicines Agency (2021). Sales of veterinary antimicrobial agents in 31 European countries in 2021: Trends from 2010 to 2021 – Twelfth ESVAC report. https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/documents/report/sales-veterinary-antimicrobial-agents-31-european-countries-2021-trends-2010-2021-twelfth-esvac-report_en.pdf
  76. European Medicines Agency (2022a). Sales of veterinary antimicrobial agents in 31 European countries in 2019 and 2020: Trends from 2010 to 2020 – Eleventh ESVAC report. https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/documents/report/sales-veterinary-antimicrobial-agents-31-european-countries-2019-and-2020-trends-2010-2020-eleventh-esvac-report_en.pdf
  77. European Medicines Agency (2022b). Sales of veterinary antimicrobial agents in 31 European countries in 2022: Trends from 2010 to 2022 – Thirteenth ESVAC report. https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/documents/report/sales-veterinary-antimicrobial-agents-31-european-countries-2022-trends-2010-2022-thirteenth-esvac-report_en.pdf
  78. European Sales and Use of Antimicrobials for Veterinary Medicine (ESUAvet). (2023). Annual surveillance report for 2023 (EMA/CVMP/ESUAVET/80289/2025)
  79. European Sales and Use of Antimicrobials for Veterinary Medicine (ESUAvet). (2024). Annual surveillance report for 2024 (EMA/CVMP/ESUAVET/376993/2025)
  80. Eurostat (2025). Poultry statistics. European Union. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php? title = Poultry_statistics
  81. Fatoba, D. O., Amoako, D. G., Akebe, A. L. K., Ismail, A., & Essack, S. Y. (2022). Genomic analysis of antibiotic-resistant Enterococcus spp. reveals novel enterococci strains and the spread of plasmid-borne Tet(M), Tet(L) and Erm(B) genes from chicken litter to agricultural soil in South Africa. Journal of Environmental Management, 302(Pt B), 114101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.114101
  82. Fernandes, C. J., Fernandes, L. A., & Collignon, P. (2005). Australian Group on Antimicrobial Resistance: Cefoxitin resistance as a surrogate marker for the detection of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 55(4), 506–510. https://doi.org/10.1093/jac/dki052
  83. Fokas, R., Kalatzis, P. G., & Vantarakis, A. (2026). Bacteriophages as food biocontrol agents: A One Health framework for manufacturing quality, regulatory governance, and ethical stewardship – A narrative review. Viruses, 18(3), 368. https://doi.org/10.3390/v18030368
  84. Food and Drug Administration. (2026). NARMS interim data updates. https://www.fda.gov/animal-veterinary/national-antimicrobial-resistance-monitoring-system/narms-interim-data-updates
  85. Franjus, C., Cavaiuolo, M., Nicolas, A., Nia, Y., & Guédon, E. (2026). Staphylococcal enterotoxins and food poisoning: New players in the game. Current Opinion in Food Science, 69, Article 101396. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cofs.2026.101396
  86. Friese, A., Schulz, J., Zimmermann, K., Tenhagen, B. A., Fetsch, A., Hartung, J., & Rösler, U. (2013). Occurrence of livestock-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in turkey and broiler barns and contamination of air and soil surfaces in their vicinity. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 79(8), 2759–2766. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.03939-12
  87. Garcia-Llorens, J., Monroy, I., Torres-Boncompte, J., Soriano, J. M., Catalá-Gregori, P., & Sevilla-Navarro, S. (2024). Tracking the prevalence of antibiotic resistance in Enterococcus within the Spanish poultry industry: Insights from a One Health approach. Antibiotics, 14(1), 16. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics14010016
  88. García-Solache, M., & Rice, L. B. (2019). The Enterococcus: A model of adaptability to its environment. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 32(2), e00058-18. https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.00058-18
  89. Ghaffar, A., Liljebjelke, K., Checkley, S., Van Der Meer, F., Farooq, M., Mudiyanselage, H., & Abdul-Careem, M. (2025). Whole genome sequencing of non-aureus Staphylococcus species from poultry barn bioaerosols across Alberta reveals circulation of isolates with multiple antibiotic-resistant genes and disinfectant resistant genes. Journal of Global Antimicrobial Resistance, 43, 18–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jgar.2025.03.014
  90. Ghorbani, A., Khoshbakht, R., Kaboosi, H., Shirzad-Aski, H., & Peyravii Ghadikolaii, F. (2022). Study on antibiotic resistance and phylogenetic comparison of avian-pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC) and uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) isolates. Veterinary Research Forum, 13(4), 569–576. https://doi.org/10.30466/vrf.2021.527563.3160
  91. Gómez-Sanz, E., Kadlec, K., Feßler, A. T., Zarazaga, M., Torres, C., & Schwarz, S. (2013). Novel erm(T)-carrying multiresistance plasmids from porcine and human isolates of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus ST398 that also harbor cadmium and copper resistance determinants. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 57, 3275–3282. https://doi.org/10.1128/AAC.00171-13
  92. Götz, F., Bannerman, T., & Schleifer, K. H. (2006). The genera Staphylococcus and Macrococcus. In M. Dworkin, S. Falkow, E. Rosenberg, K. H. Schleifer, & E. Stackebrandt (Eds.), The prokaryotes (pp. 5–75). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-30744-3_1
  93. Grimont, P. A. D., & Weill, F.-X. (2007). Antigénic formulae of the Salmonella serovars (9th ed.). WHO Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research on Salmonella, Institut Pasteur. https://www.pasteur.fr/sites/default/files/veng_0.pdf
  94. Hado, H., & Assafi, M. (2021). Molecular fingerprinting of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains isolated from human and poultry in Duhok, Iraq. Iraqi Journal of Veterinary Sciences, 35(1), 99–103. https://doi.org/10.33899/ijvs.2020.126375.1310
  95. Hailu, W., Helmy, Y. A., Carney-Knisely, G., Kauffman, M., Fraga, D., & Rajashekara, G. (2021). Prevalence and antimicrobial resistance profiles of foodborne pathogens isolated from dairy cattle and poultry manure amended farms in Northeastern Ohio, the United States. Antibiotics, 10(12), 1450. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics10121450
  96. Hammerum, A. M. (2012). Enterococci of animal origin and their significance for public health. Clinical Microbiology and Infection, 18(7), 619–625. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-0691.2012.03829.x
  97. Hamza, D. A., Abd-Elsalam, R. M., Nader, S. M., Elhariri, M., Elhelw, R., & El-Mahallawy, H. S. (2020). Pathways of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in animal model: New insights regarding public health. Infection and Drug Resistance, 13, 1593–1600. https://doi.org/10.2147/IDR.S252332
  98. Hao, G., Li, P., Huang, J., Cui, K., Liang, L., Lin, F., Lu, Z., & Sun, S. (2023). Research note: Therapeutic effect of a Salmonella phage combination on chicks infected with Salmonella Typhimurium. Poultry Science, 102, 102715. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psj.2023.102715
  99. Hao, J., Zhang, J., He, X., Wang, Y., Su, J., Long, J., Zhang, L., Guo, Z., Zheng, Y., Wang, M., & Sun, Y. (2025). Unveiling the silent threat: A comprehensive review of Riemerella anatipestifer – From pathogenesis to drug resistance. Poultry Science, 104(4), 104915. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psj.2025.104915
  100. Hao, R., Shoaib, M., Tang, M., Cao, Z., Liu, G., Zhang, Y., Wang, S., Shang, R., Zhang, H., & Pu, W. (2024). Genomic insights into resistome, virulome, and mobilome as organic contaminants of ESKAPE pathogens and E. coli recovered from milk, farm workers, and environmental settings in Hainan, China. Emerging Contaminants, 10(4), 100385. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.emcon.2024.100385
  101. Hernández-Villamizar, S., Bonilla, J. A., García-Vega, A. S., Arevalo-Mayorga, S., Castrillo, D., Medina, V. A., Triviño-García, E. S., Romero, N., Piñeros, R., Fonseca, L., Donado, P., Vives, M. J., Barato, P., & Clavijo, V. (2025). Improving health and productivity in laying hens with the phage cocktail SalmoFree®. Poultry Science, 104(11), 105638. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psj.2025.105638
  102. Hollenbeck, B. L., & Rice, L. B. (2012). Intrinsic and acquired resistance mechanisms in enterococcus. Virulence, 3(5), 421–433. https://doi.org/10.4161/viru.21282
  103. Hryniewicz, M. M., & Garbacz, K. (2017). Borderline oxacillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (BORSA) – a more common problem than expected?. Journal of Medical Microbiology, 66(10), 1367–1373. https://doi.org/10.1099/jmm.0.000585
  104. Huang, L., Yuan, H., Liu, M. F., Zhao, X. X., Wang, M. S., Jia, R. Y., Chen, S., Sun, K. F., Yang, Q., Wu, Y., Chen, X. Y., Cheng, A. C., & Zhu, D. K. (2017). Type B chloramphenicol acetyltransferases are responsible for chloramphenicol resistance in Riemerella anatipestifer, China. Frontiers in Microbiology, 8, 297. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2017.00297
  105. Huang, L., Liu, M., Ammanath, A. V., Zhu, D., Jia, R., Chen, S., Zhao, X., Yang, Q., Wu, Y., Zhang, S., Huang, J., Ou, X., Mao, S., Gao, Q., Sun, D., Tian, B., Götz, F., Wang, M., & Cheng, A. (2021). Identification of the natural transformation genes in Riemerella anatipestifer by random transposon mutagenesis. Frontiers in Microbiology, 12, 712198. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2021.712198
  106. Huang, Y., Wang, W., Zhang, Z., Gu, Y., Huang, A., Wang, J., & Hao, H. (2022). Phage products for fighting antimicrobial resistance. Microorganisms, 10(7), 1324. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms10071324
  107. Igbinosa, E. O., Beshiru, A., Igbinosa, I. H., Ogofure, A. G., Ekundayo, T. C., & Okoh, A. I. (2023). Prevalence, multiple antibiotic resistance and virulence profile of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in retail poultry meat from Edo, Nigeria. Frontiers in cellular and infection microbiology, 13, 1122059. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2023.1122059
  108. Intralytix. Food safety. https://www.intralytix.com/food-safety
  109. Jesumirhewe, C., Odufuye, T. O., Ariri, J. U., Adebiyi, A. A., Sanusi, A. T., Stöger, A., Daza-Prieto, B., Allerberger, F., Cabal-Rosel, A., & Ruppitsch, W. (2024). Genetic characterization of antibiotic-resistant Staphylococcus spp. and Mammaliicoccus sciuri from healthy humans and poultry in Nigeria. Antibiotics (Basel, Switzerland), 13(8), 733. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics13080733
  110. Jhandai, P., Mittal, D., Gupta, R., Kumar, M., & Khurana, R. (2024). Therapeutics and prophylactic efficacy of novel lytic Escherichia phage vB_EcoS_PJ16 against multidrug-resistant avian pathogenic E. coli using in vivo study. International microbiology: the official journal of the Spanish Society for Microbiology, 27(3), 673–687. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10123-023-00420-7
  111. Jiang, Y., Peng, K., Wang, Q., Wang, M., Li, R., & Wang, Z. (2023). Novel Trimethoprim Resistance Gene dfrA49 Identified in Riemerella anatipestifer from China. Microbiology spectrum, 11(2), e0474722. https://doi.org/10.1128/spectrum.04747-22
  112. Jordá, J., Lorenzo-Rebenaque, L., Montoro-Dasi, L., Marco-Fuertes, A., Vega, S., & Marin, C. (2023). Phage-based biosanitation strategies for minimizing persistent Salmonella and Campylobacter bacteria in poultry. Animals: an open access journal from MDPI, 13(24), 3826. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13243826
  113. Jordan, F. T. W., & Bisgaard, M. (2011). Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae – różyca. W M. Pattison, P. F. McMullin, J. M. Bradbury, & D. J. Alexander (red.), Choroby drobiu (wyd. 1, s. 257–261). Edra Urban & Partner. (Polish edition; in Polish)
  114. Joseph, J., Jennings, M., Barbieri, N., Zhang, L., Adhikari, P., & Ramachandran, R. (2023). Characterization of avian pathogenic Escherichia coli isolated from broiler breeders with colibacillosis in Mississippi. Poultry, 2(1), 24–39. https://doi.org/10.3390/poultry2010004
  115. Kasimoglu-Dogru, A., Gencay, Y. E., & Ayaz, N. D. (2010). Prevalence and antibiotic resistance profiles of Enterococcus species in chicken at slaughter level; absence of vanA and vanB genes in E. faecalis and E. faecium. Research in veterinary science, 89(2), 153–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2010.02.005
  116. Katayama, Y., Ito, T., & Hiramatsu, K. (2000). A new class of genetic element, staphylococcus cassette chromosome mec, encodes methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrobial agents and chemotherapy, 44(6), 1549–1555. https://doi.org/10.1128/AAC.44.6.1549-1555.2000
  117. Katkowska, M., Kosecka-Strojek, M., Wolska-Gębarzewska, M., Kwapisz, E., Wierzbowska, M., Międzobrodzki, J., & Garbacz, K. (2025). Emerging challenges in methicillin resistance of coagulase-negative staphylococci. Antibiotics, 14(1), 37. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics14010037
  118. Kawacka, I., Olejnik-Schmidt, A., Schmidt, M., & Sip, A. (2020). Effectiveness of phage-based inhibition of Listeria monocytogenes in food products and food processing environments. Microorganisms, 8(11), 1764. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8111764
  119. Keerqin, C., McGlashan, K., Van, T. T. H., Chinivasagam, H. N., Moore, R. J., Choct, M., & Wu, S. B. (2022). A lytic bacteriophage isolate reduced Clostridium perfringens induced lesions in necrotic enteritis challenged broilers. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 9, 1058115. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2022.1058115
  120. Keithlin, J., Sargeant, J., Thomas, M. K., & Fazil, A. (2014). Systematic review and meta-analysis of the proportion of Campylobacter cases that develop chronic sequelae. BMC public health, 14, 1203. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-14-1203
  121. Kerek, Á., Szabó, Á., & Jerzsele, Á. (2024). Antimicrobial susceptibility profiles of commensal Enterococcus spp. isolates from chickens in Hungarian poultry farms between 2022 and 2023. Antibiotics (Basel, Switzerland), 13(12), 1194. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics13121194
  122. Kerek, Á., Szabó, Á., Barnácz, F., Csirmaz, B., Kovács, L., & Jerzsele, Á. (2025a). Antimicrobial susceptibility profiles of commensal Enterococcus spp. isolates from turkeys in Hungarian poultry farms between 2022 and 2023. Antibiotics (Basel, Switzerland), 14(4), 331. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics14040331
  123. Kerek, Á., Tornyos, G., Kaszab, E., Fehér, E., & Jerzsele, Á. (2025b). Comparative phenotypic and genotypic analysis of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae strains isolated from poultry. Antibiotics (Basel, Switzerland), 15(1), 11. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics15010011
  124. Kim, J. H., Kim, H. J., Jung, S. J., Mizan, M. F. R., Park, S. H., & Ha, S. D. (2020). Characterization of Salmonella spp.-specific bacteriophages and their biocontrol application in chicken breast meat. Journal of Food Science, 85(3), 526–534. https://doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841.15042
  125. Kosznik-Kwaśnicka, K., Podlacha, M., Grabowski, Ł., Stasiłojć, M., Nowak-Zaleska, A., Ciemińska, K., Cyske, Z., Dydecka, A., Gaffke, L., Mantej, J., Myślińska, D., Necel, A., Pierzynowska, K., Piotrowska, E., Radzanowska-Alenowicz, E., Rintz, E., Sitko, K., Topka-Bielecka, G., Węgrzyn, G., & Węgrzyn, A. (2022). Biological aspects of phage therapy versus antibiotics against Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium infection of chickens. Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology, 12, 941867. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2022.941867
  126. Kovács, L., Szabó, Á., Barnácz, F., Csirmaz, B., Jerzsele, Á., & Kerek, Á. (2025). Antimicrobial susceptibility profiles of commensal Staphylococcus spp. isolates from turkeys in Hungarian poultry farms between 2022 and 2023. Antibiotics (Basel, Switzerland), 14(2), 200. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics14020200
  127. Krupa, P., Bystroń, J., Podkowik, M., Empel, J., Mroczkowska, A., & Bania, J. (2015). Population structure and oxacillin resistance of Staphylococcus aureus from pigs and pork meat in south-west of Poland. BioMed Research International, 2015, 141475. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/141475
  128. Kuźmińska-Bajor, M., Śliwka, P., Korzeniowski, P., Kuczkowski, M., Moreno, D. S., Woźniak-Biel, A., Śliwińska, E., & Grzymajło, K. (2023). Effective reduction of Salmonella Enteritidis in broiler chickens using the UPWr_S134 phage cocktail. Frontiers in Microbiology, 14, 1136261. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2023.1136261
  129. Kuźmińska-Bajor, M., Kuczkowski, M., Konkol, D., Korczyński, M., Rakicka-Pustułka, M., Kozioł, S., Tomaszewska-Hetman, L., & Rywińska, A. (2025). Environmental application of a bacteriophage cocktail reduces antibiotic-resistant Escherichia coli in poultry litter without disrupting gut microbiota. Animals: an Open Access Journal from MDPI, 15(17), 2525. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15172525
  130. Lakhundi, S., & Zhang, K. (2018). Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: Molecular characterization, evolution, and epidemiology. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 31(4), e00020-18. https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.00020-18
  131. Lebreton, F., Willems, R. J. L., & Gilmore, M. S. (2014). Enterococcus diversity, origins in nature, and gut colonization. In M. S. Gilmore, D. B. Clewell, Y. Ike, & N. Shankar (Eds.), Enterococci: From Commensals to Leading Causes of Drug Resistant Infection. Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK190427/
  132. Li, P., Gao, M., Feng, C., Yan, T., Sheng, Z., Shi, W., Liu, S., Zhang, L., Li, A., Lu, J., Lin, X., Li, K., Xu, T., Bao, Q., & Sun, C. (2022). Molecular characterization of florfenicol and oxazolidinone resistance in Enterococcus isolates from animals in China. Frontiers in Microbiology, 13, 811692. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2022.811692
  133. Li, P., Yang, Z., Lei, T., Dai, Y., Zhou, Y., Zhu, D., & Luo, H. (2023). Identification of a novel carbapenem-hydrolysing class D β-lactamase RAD-1 in Riemerella anatipestifer. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 78, 1117–1124. https://doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkad058
  134. Li, S., Chen, Q., Gong, X., Liu, Y., & Zheng, F. (2020). RanB, a putative ABC-type multidrug efflux transporter contributes to aminoglycosides resistance and organic solvents tolerance in Riemerella anatipestifer. Veterinary Microbiology, 243, Article 108641. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2020.108641
  135. Li, Y. F., Jiang, H. X., Xiang, R., Sun, N., Zhang, Y. N., Zhao, L. Q., Gu, P., Wang, L. Q., & Zeng, Z. L. (2016). Effects of two efflux pump inhibitors on the drug susceptibility of Riemerella anatipestifer isolates from China. Journal of Integrative Agriculture, 15(4), 929–933. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2095-3119(15)61031-0
  136. Lika, E., Puvača, N., Jeremić, D., Stanojević, S., Shtylla Kika, T., Cocoli, S., & de Llanos Frutos, R. (2021). Antibiotic susceptibility of Staphylococcus species isolated in raw chicken meat from retail stores. Antibiotics (Basel, Switzerland), 10(8), 904. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics10080904
  137. Liu, X., Li, X., Liu, J., Chen, R., Liu, R., Zhao, R., Zhao, J., Hao, J., Yang, S., Luo, A., & Chen, A. (2025a). Antimicrobial resistance of Escherichia coli from broilers in large-scale poultry farms in Shandong Province. Frontiers in Microbiology, 16, 1685522. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2025.1685522
  138. Liu, Y., Wang, L., Wang, J., Lu, M., Liu, N., Zhao, J., Hu, F., Han, K., Liu, J., Wang, J., & Qu, Z. (2025b). Epidemic trend of Salmonella from swines and broilers in China from 2014 to 2023 and genetic evolution analysis of ESBLs-producing strains. Frontiers in Microbiology, 16, 1510751. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2025.1510751
  139. López, M., Sáenz, Y., Alvarez-Martínez, M. J., Marco, F., Robredo, B., Rojo-Bezares, B., Ruiz-Larrea, F., Zarazaga, M., & Torres, C. (2010). Tn1546 structures and multilocus sequence typing of vanA-containing enterococci of animal, human and food origin. The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 65(8), 1570–1575. https://doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkq192
  140. Lory, S. (2014). The family Staphylococcaceae. In E. Rosenberg, E. F. DeLong, S. Lory, E. Stackebrandt, & F. Thompson (Eds.), The Prokaryotes: Firmicutes and Tenericutes (4th ed., p. 573). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-30120-9
  141. Lúcio, C. J., Hansen, P. H. C., Griebeler, J., Kipper, D., & Lunge, V. R. (2025). Virulence and antimicrobial resistance of avian pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC) isolates from poultry in Brazil. Poultry, 4(1), Article 10. https://doi.org/10.3390/poultry4010010
  142. Luo, H. Y., Liu, M. F., Wang, M. S., Zhao, X. X., Jia, R. Y., Chen, S., Sun, K. F., Yang, Q., Wu, Y., Chen, X. Y., Biville, F., Zou, Y. F., Jing, B., Cheng, A. C., & Zhu, D. K. (2018). A novel resistance gene, lnu(H), conferring resistance to lincosamides in Riemerella anatipestifer CH-2. International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents, 51(1), 136–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2017.08.022
  143. Luo, H., Zhu, D., Li, M., Tang, Y., Zhang, W., Wang, H., & Li, P. (2022a). RAA enzyme is a new family of class A extended-spectrum β-lactamase from Riemerella anatipestifer strain RCAD0122. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 66(3), e0175721. https://doi.org/10.1128/AAC.01757-21
  144. Luo, H., Li, M., Yang, Z., Zhu, D., & Li, P. (2022b). Characterization of RASA-1, a novel class A extended-spectrum beta-lactamase from Riemerella anatipestifer. Veterinary Microbiology, 270, 109456. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2022.109456
  145. Łusiak-Szelachowska, M., Żaczek, M., Weber-Dąbrowska, B., Międzybrodzki, R., Letkiewicz, S., Fortuna, W., Rogóż, P., Szufnarowski, K., Jończyk-Matysiak, E., Olchawa, E., Walaszek, K. M., & Górski, A. (2017). Antiphage activity of sera during phage therapy in relation to its outcome. Future Microbiology, 12, 109–117. https://doi.org/10.2217/fmb-2016-0156
  146. Lyu, Z., Han, S., Li, J., Guo, Z., Geng, N., Lyu, C., Qin, L., & Li, N. (2023). Epidemiological investigation and drug resistance characteristics of Riemerella anatipestifer strains from large-scale duck farms in Shandong Province, China from March 2020 to March 2022. Poultry Science, 102(7), 102759. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psj.2023.102759
  147. Ma, H., Zhang, L., Wang, L., Yang, Z., Liu, J., Sun, H., Ge, S., & Quan, C. (2026). Antibiotic mechanisms and resistance: Molecular insights and therapeutic strategies. Antibiotics (Basel, Switzerland), 15(4), 351. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics15040351
  148. Madhaiyan, M., Wirth, J. S., & Saravanan, V. S. (2020). Phylogenomic analyses of the Staphylococcaceae family suggest the reclassification of five species within the genus Staphylococcus as heterotypic synonyms, the promotion of five subspecies to novel species, the taxonomic reassignment of five Staphylococcus species to Mammaliicoccus gen. nov., and the formal assignment of Nosocomiicoccus to the family Staphylococcaceae. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology, 70(11), 5926–5936. https://doi.org/10.1099/ijsem.0.004498
  149. Majewski, M., Józefiak, A., Kimsa-Furdzik, M., Dziubdziela, L., Hudak-Nowak, M., Wilczyński, J., & Anusz, K. (2021). Antimicrobial resistance of Escherichia coli and Klebsiella spp. conventionally sampled from factory-farmed chickens – clinical submissions. Annals of agricultural and environmental medicine: AAEM, 28(2), 271–276. https://doi.org/10.26444/aaem/120927
  150. Majowicz, S. E., Musto, J., Scallan, E., Angulo, F. J., Kirk, M., O’Brien, S. J., Jones, T. F., Fazil, A., Hoekstra, R. M., & International Collaboration on Enteric Disease ‘Burden of Illness’ Studies (2010). The global burden of nontyphoidal Salmonella gastroenteritis. Clinical infectious diseases: an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America, 50(6), 882–889. https://doi.org/10.1086/650733
  151. Marek, A., Pyzik, E., Stępień-Pyśniak, D., Urban-Chmiel, R., & Nowaczek, A. (2019). Characterization of bacteriophages and their carriage in Staphylococcus aureus isolated from broilers in Poland. British Poultry Science, 60(4), 373–380. https://doi.org/10.1080/00071668.2018.1426831
  152. Martinez-Laorden, A., Arraiz-Fernandez, C., Cantalejo, M. J., & Gonzalez-Fandos, E. (2024). Prevalence, identification and antimicrobial resistance of Listeria monocytogenes and Listeria spp. isolated from poultry and pork meat. International Journal of Food Science & Technology, 59(5), 2667–2675. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijfs.17013
  153. Mehrotra, M., Wang, G., & Johnson, W. M. (2000). Multiplex PCR for detection of genes for Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxins, exfoliative toxins, toxic shock syndrome toxin 1, and methicillin resistance. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 38(3), 1032–1035. https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.38.3.1032-1035.2000
  154. Melaku, M., Wang, J., Xie, Y., Ali, A., Yi, B., Ma, T., Zhong, R., Chen, L., & Zhang, H. (2025). Reviving hope: Phage therapy application for antimicrobial resistance in farm animal production over the past decade. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 324, 116333. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2025.116333
  155. Meng, F., Zhou, D., Li, R., Lang, F., Xiang, B., Yang, L., & Cheng, Z. (2025). Emergence of linezolid-resistant Enterococcus cecorum clade F harboring optrA/fexA causing enterococcal spondylitis in commercial broilers in China. BMC Microbiology, 25(1), 313. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12866-025-04045-w
  156. Meyer, M., Bobeck, E., Sato, Y., & El-Gazzar, M. (2021). Comparison of naturally occurring versus experimental infection of Staphylococcus aureus septicemia in laying hens in two different age groups. Avian Diseases, 65(2), 310–320. https://doi.org/10.1637/0005-2086-65.2.310
  157. Micreos Food Safety BV. Salmonelex™. U.S. Food and Drug Administration.https://www.fda.gov/media/98485/download
  158. MicroMir (2022). Micromir drugs. https://micromircorp.ru/en/products/fagovet
  159. Mohammadi, N. T., Shen, C., Li, Y., Zayda, M. G., Sato, J., Masuda, Y., Honjoh, K. I., & Miyamoto, T. (2022). Characterization of Clostridium perfringens bacteriophages and their application in chicken meat and milk. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 361, 109446. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2021.109446
  160. Mohibbullah, M., Hasibul, H., Rahman, S., Rafia, R., Harunur, R., Akter, R., & Afroz, F. (2022). Identification of bacteria associated with chicken omphalitis and their antibiotic profiles. Cohesive Journal of Microbiology & Infectious Disease, 6(1), 000627. https://doi.org/10.31031/CJMI.2022.06.000627
  161. Molechan, C., Amoako, D. G., Abia, A. L. K., Somboro, A. M., Bester, L. A., & Essack, S. Y. (2019). Molecular epidemiology of antibiotic-resistant Enterococcus spp. from the farm-to-fork continuum in intensive poultry production in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. The Science of the Total Environment, 692, 868–878. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.07.324
  162. Monroy, I., Catalá-Gregori, P., & Sevilla-Navarro, S. (2025). Assessment of antibiotic resistance and virulence in Escherichia coli strains isolated from poultry in Spain. Poultry Science, 104(2), 104838. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psj.2025.104838
  163. Moraes, D. M. C., Almeida, A. M. S., Andrade, M. A., Nascente, E. P., Duarte, S. C., Nunes, I. A., Jayme, V. S., & Minafra, C. (2024). Antibiotic resistance profile of Salmonella sp. isolates from commercial laying hen farms in Central-Western Brazil. Microorganisms, 12(4), 669. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms12040669
  164. Seyedeh Mozhgan, M. B., Ebrahim, R., Hashemi, S. M., & Noosha, Z. J. (2025). Investigating the Prevalence of Enterotoxin and Antibiotic Resistance in Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) Isolated from Meat and Edible Viscera of Broiler Chickens. Veterinary medicine and science, 11(4), e70413. https://doi.org/10.1002/vms3.70413
  165. Mpundu, P., Muma, J. B., Mukubesa, A. N., Kainga, H., Mudenda, S., Bumbangi, F. N., Muleya, W., Katemangwe, P., & Munyeme, M. (2022). Antibiotic resistance patterns of Listeria species isolated from broiler abattoirs in Lusaka, Zambia. Antibiotics (Basel, Switzerland), 11(5), 591. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics11050591
  166. Muneeb, M., Ullah Khan, E., Ahmad, S., Hussain, I., Batool, S., Fatima, A., Soumeh, E. A., Al Sulaiman, A. R., & Abudabos, A. E. (2025). A comprehensive review of the application of bacteriophages against enteric bacterial infection in poultry: Current status, challenges, and future prospects. Antibiotics (Basel, Switzerland), 14(12), 1207. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics14121207
  167. Mwambene, S. J., Mtenga, A. B., Chengula, A. A., & Hoza, A. S. (2025). Detection and antibiotic resistance of Salmonella isolates from selected poultry farms in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Access Microbiology, 7(5), 000879.v5. https://doi.org/10.1099/acmi.0.000879.v5
  168. Mwikuma, G., Kainga, H., Kallu, S. A., Nakajima, C., Suzuki, Y., & Hang’ombe, B. M. (2023). Determination of the prevalence and antimicrobial resistance of Enterococcus faecalis and Enterococcus faecium associated with poultry in four districts in Zambia. Antibiotics (Basel, Switzerland), 12(4), 657. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics12040657
  169. Naureen, Z., Dautaj, A., Anpilogov, K., Camilleri, G., Dhuli, K., Tanzi, B., Maltese, P. E., Cristofoli, F., De Antoni, L., Beccari, T., Dundar, M., & Bertelli, M. (2020). Bacteriophages presence in nature and their role in the natural selection of bacterial populations. Acta Bio-Medica: Atenei Parmensis, 91(13-S), e2020024. https://doi.org/10.23750/abm.v91i13-S.10819
  170. Nechypurenko, O., Avdeeva, L., Dreval, D., & Sobko, I. (2024). Avian pathogenic Escherichia coli and its antibiotic resistance. Mikrobiolohichnyi Zhurnal, 86(5), 61–74. https://doi.org/10.15407/microbiolj86.05.061
  171. Noenchat, P., Direksin, K., & Sornplang, P. (2023). The phenotypic and genotypic antimicrobial resistance patterns of Salmonella isolated from chickens and meat at poultry slaughterhouses in Japan and Thailand. Veterinary World, 16(7), 1527–1533. https://doi.org/10.14202/vetworld.2023.1527-1533
  172. Nowaczek, A., Dec, M., Stępień-Pyśniak, D., Urban-Chmiel, R., Marek, A., & Różański, P. (2021). Antibiotic resistance and virulence profiles of Escherichia coli strains isolated from wild birds in Poland. Pathogens (Basel, Switzerland), 10(8), 1059. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10081059
  173. Nowaczek, A., Dec, M., Stępień-Pyśniak, D., Wilczyński, J., & Urban-Chmiel, R. (2023). Characterization of Riemerella anatipestifer strains isolated from various poultry species in Poland. Antibiotics (Basel, Switzerland), 12(12), 1648. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics12121648
  174. Nowak, T., Wódz, K., Kwieciński, P., Kwieciński, A., & Dec, M. (2024). Incidence of erysipelas in waterfowl in Poland – clinical and pathological investigations. British Poultry Science, 65(6), 762–768. https://doi.org/10.1080/00071668.2024.2406331
  175. Nunes, A., Oleastro, M., Alves, F., Liassine, N., Lowe, D. M., Benejat, L., Ducounau, A., Jehanne, Q., Borges, V., Gomes, J. P., Godbole, G., & Philippe, L. (2023). Recurrent Campylobacter jejuni infections with in vivo selection of resistance to macrolides and carbapenems: Molecular characterization of resistance determinants. Microbiology Spectrum, 11(4), e0107023. https://doi.org/10.1128/spectrum.01070-23
  176. Obe, T., Siceloff, A. T., Crowe, M. G., Scott, H. M., & Shariat, N. W. (2023). Combined quantification and deep serotyping for Salmonella risk profiling in broiler flocks. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 89(4), e0203522. https://doi.org/10.1128/aem.02035-22
  177. Oliveira, J. M., Cardoso, M. F., Moreira, F. A., & Müller, A. (2022). Phenotypic antimicrobial resistance (AMR) of avian pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC) from broiler breeder flocks between 2009 and 2018. Avian Pathology: Journal of the W.V.P.A, 51(4), 388–394. https://doi.org/10.1080/03079457.2022.2074816
  178. Oluwarinde, B. O., Ajose, D. J., Abolarinwa, T. O., Montso, P. K., Du Preez, I., Njom, H. A., & Ateba, C. N. (2023). Safety properties of Escherichia coli O157:H7 specific bacteriophages: Recent advances for food safety. Foods (Basel, Switzerland), 12(21), 3989. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12213989
  179. OmniLytics (2026). Food safety. https://omnilytics.com/food-water/
  180. Palmer, K. L., & Gilmore, M. S. (2010). Multidrug-resistant enterococci lack CRISPR-cas. mBio, 1(4), Article e00227-10. https://doi.org/10.1128/mBio.00227-10
  181. Panera-Martínez, S., Rodríguez-Melcón, C., Serrano-Galán, V., Alonso-Calleja, C., & Capita, R. (2022). Prevalence, quantification and antibiotic resistance of Listeria monocytogenes in poultry preparations. Food Control, 135, 108609. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2021.108608
  182. Paravisi, M., Laviniki, V., Bassani, J., Kunert Filho, H. C., Carvalho, D., Wilsmann, D. E., Borges, K. A., Furian, T. Q., Salle, C. T. P., Moraes, H. L. S., & Nascimento, V. P. (2020). Antimicrobial resistance in Campylobacter jejuni isolated from Brazilian poultry slaughterhouses. Brazilian Journal of Poultry Science, 22, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1590/1806-9061-2020-1262
  183. Partridge, S. R., Kwong, S. M., Firth, N., & Jensen, S. O. (2018). Mobile genetic elements associated with antimicrobial resistance. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 31(4), e00088-17. https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.00088-17
  184. Patel, S. S., Patel, A. C., Mohapatra, S. K., Chauhan, H. C., Sharma, K. K., Shrimali, M. D., Raval, S. H., & Prajapati, B. I. (2024). Antibiotic resistance and virulence gene patterns associated with multi drug resistant avian pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC) isolated from broiler chickens in India. Indian Journal of Microbiology, 64(3), 917–926. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12088-023-01132-2
  185. Pathomchai-Umporn, C., Laopiem, S., Witoonsatian, K., Kulprasetsri, S., Panomwan, P., Songserm, T., & Sinwat, N. (2025). Quinolone resistance in Riemerella anatipestifer from Thai ducks: Mutation analysis of gyrA, parC, and plasmid-mediated quinolone resistance genes. Veterinary World, 18(7), 1891–1898. https://doi.org/10.14202/vetworld.2025.1891-1898
  186. Pelyuntha, W., Ngasaman, R., Yingkajorn, M., Chukiatsiri, K., Guyonnet, V., & Vongkamjan, K. (2024). Phage cocktail administration to reduce Salmonella load in broilers. Research in Veterinary Science, 169, 105163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2024.105163
  187. Phageguard. (2026). Applied phage technology to eliminate food pathogens. https://www.phageguard.com/
  188. Połaska, M., & Sokołowska, B. (2019). Bacteriophages – a new hope or a huge problem in the food industry. AIMS Microbiology, 5(4), 324–346. https://doi.org/10.3934/microbiol.2019.4.324
  189. Popy, N. N., Khan, M. F. R., Islam, M. S., Biswas, L., Yasmin, L., Siddique, M. P., Rahman, M., & Rahman, M. B. (2025). Serovar-specific antimicrobial resistance and virulence profiles of Salmonella enterica from poultry in Bangladesh. MicrobiologyOpen, 14(5), e70091. https://doi.org/10.1002/mbo3.70091
  190. Poudel, S., Li, T., Chen, S., Zhang, X., Cheng, W. H., Sukumaran, A. T., Kiess, A. S., & Zhang, L. (2022). Prevalence, antimicrobial resistance, and molecular characterization of Campylobacter isolated from broilers and broiler meat raised without antibiotics. Microbiology Spectrum, 10(3), e0025122. https://doi.org/10.1128/spectrum.00251-22
  191. Proteonpharma webside: https://proteonpharma.com/pl
  192. Pyzik, E., Nowaczek, A., Urban-Chmiel, R., Korona-Głowniak, I., Dec, M., Herman, K., Stępień-Pyśniak, D., Marek, A., & Nowak, T. (2023). Efektywność eksperymentalnego preparatu bakteriofagowego do wspomagania dezynfekcji i poprawy dobrostanu środowisk utrzymania drobiu w zakresie eliminacji patogennych szczepów Escherichia coli in vitro. In K. Śmietanka (Ed.), Choroby związane z układem rozrodczym ptaków. Materiały konferencyjne, Puławy, 6-7.10.2023 (pp. 67–70). Państwowy Instytut Weterynaryjny – Państwowy Instytut Badawczy
  193. Pyzik, E., Urban-Chmiel, R., Herman, K., & Nowaczek, A. (2024). Solutions limiting the use of antibiotics in poultry production in Poland and other European Union countries. Animal Science and Genetics, 20(2), 41–53. https://doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0054.6542
  194. Racewicz, P., Majewski, M., Biesiada, H., Nowaczewski, S., Wilczyński, J., Wystalska, D., Kubiak, M., Pszczoła, M., & Madeja, Z. E. (2022). Prevalence and characterisation of antimicrobial resistance genes and class 1 and 2 integrons in multiresistant Escherichia coli isolated from poultry production. Scientific Reports, 12(1), 6062. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-09996-y
  195. Rahman, M. A., Abraham, R., Abraham, S., Hampson, D. J., & Uddin, J. M. (2026). Application of bacteriophages to control bacterial infections of food animals in the era of antimicrobial resistance: An overview. Veterinary Microbiology, 316, 110988. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2026.110988
  196. Ramtahal, M. A., Amoako, D. G., Akebe, A. L. K., Somboro, A. M., Bester, L. A., & Essack, S. Y. (2022). A public health insight into Salmonella in poultry in Africa: A review of the past decade: 2010–2020. Microbial Drug Resistance (Larchmont, N.Y.), 28(6), 710–733. https://doi.org/10.1089/mdr.2021.0384
  197. Ranabhat, G., Subedi, D., Karki, J., Paudel, R., Luitel, H., & Bhattarai, R. K. (2024). Molecular detection of avian pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC) in broiler meat from retail meat shop. Heliyon, 10(15), e35661. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e35661
  198. Rau, R. B., Ribeiro, A. R., dos Santos, A., & Barth, A. L. (2021). Antimicrobial resistance of Salmonella from poultry meat in Brazil: results of a nationwide survey. Epidemiology and Infection, 149, e228. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0950268821002156
  199. Rehman, M. A., Yin, X., Zaheer, R., Goji, N., Amoako, K. K., McAllister, T., Pritchard, J., Topp, E., & Diarra, M. S. (2018). Genotypes and phenotypes of enterococci isolated from broiler chickens. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 2, 83. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2018.00083
  200. Romero-Barrios, P., Deckert, A., Parmley, E. J., & Leclair, D. (2020). Antimicrobial resistance profiles of Escherichia coli and Salmonella isolates in Canadian broiler chickens and their products. Foodborne Pathogens and Disease, 17(11), 672–678. https://doi.org/10.1089/fpd.2019.2776
  201. Rostamian, M., Rahmati, D., & Akya, A. (2022). Clinical manifestations, associated diseases, diagnosis, and treatment of human infections caused by Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae: A systematic review. Germs, 12(1), 16–31. https://doi.org/10.18683/germs.2022.1303
  202. Ruiz, J. A., & Sandhu, T. S. (2013). Riemerella anatipestifer infection. In D. E. Swayne, J. R. Glisson, L. R. McDougald, V. Nolan, D. L. Suarez, & V. L. Nair (Ed.), Diseases of poultry, 13 ed. (pp. 823–828). Wiley-Blackwell.
  203. Salem, M., Ghabbour, R., Mostafa, N. F., Awad, A., & Younis, G. (2025). Molecular characterization of Salmonella isolates from poultry in Egypt: Detection of virulence, ESBLs genes and antimicrobial resistance profiling. Veterinary Research Communications, 50(1), Article 44. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11259-025-10936-0
  204. Schwarz, S., Kehrenberg, C., Doublet, B., & Cloeckaert, A. (2004). Molecular basis of bacterial resistance to chloramphenicol and florfenicol. FEMS Microbiology Reviews, 28(5), 519–542. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.femsre.2004.04.001
  205. Seiler, C., & Berendonk, T. U. (2012). Heavy metal driven co-selection of antibiotic resistance in soil and water bodies impacted by agriculture and aquaculture. Frontiers in Microbiology, 3, Article 399. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2012.00399
  206. Sgariglia, E., Aconiti Mandolini, N., Napoleoni, M., Medici, L., Fraticelli, R., Conquista, M., Gianfelici, P., Staffolani, M., Fisichella, S., Capuccella, M., Sargenti, M., & Perugini, G. (2019). Antibiotic resistance pattern and virulence genes in avian pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC) from different breeding systems. Veterinaria Italiana, 55(1), 26–33. https://doi.org/10.12834/VetIt.1617.8701.1
  207. Shahin, K., & Bouzari, M. (2018). Bacteriophage application for biocontrolling Shigella flexneri in contaminated foods. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 55(2), 550–559. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-017-2964-2
  208. Shakir, Z. M., Alhatami, A. O., Ismail Khudhair, Y., & Muhsen Abdulwahab, H. (2021). Antibiotic resistance profile and multiple antibiotic resistance index of Campylobacter species isolated from poultry. Archives of Razi Institute, 76(6), 1677–1686. https://doi.org/10.22092/ari.2021.356400.1837
  209. Shchur, N., Chechet, O., Mazur, T., Martyniuk, O., Gorbatiuk, O., Buchkovska, H., Musiets, I., Ordynska, D., Finkova, O., Moskalenko, L., Ponomaryova-Gerasimyuk, T., Lusta, M., & Nedosekov, V. (2023). Prevalence and antimicrobial resistance of Campylobacter isolated from animals and poultry in Ukraine. Advances in Animal and Veterinary Sciences, 11(5), 852–863. https://doi.org/10.17582/journal.aavs/2023/11.5.852.863
  210. Shil, S., Haldar, S., Arora, S. S., Pan, D., Koley, H., Chowdhury, J., Maity, A., & Debnath, A. (2026). Antimicrobial resistance in Salmonella from Indian poultry: Trends, challenges, and One Health perspectives. Journal of Pure and Applied Microbiology, 20(1), 1–32. https://doi.org/10.22207/JPAM.20.1.31
  211. Shore, A. C., & Coleman, D. C. (2013). Staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec: Recent advances and new insights. International Journal of Medical Microbiology, 303(6–7), 350–359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmm.2013.02.002
  212. Shu, G., Qiu, J., Zheng, Y., Chang, L., Li, H., Xu, F., Zhang, W., Yin, L., Fu, H., Yan, Q., Gan, T., & Lin, J. (2023). Association between phenotypes of antimicrobial resistance, ESBL resistance genes, and virulence genes of Salmonella isolated from chickens in Sichuan, China. Animals: an open access journal from MDPI, 13(17), 2770. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13172770
  213. Silva, V., Caniça, M., Ferreira, E., Vieira-Pinto, M., Saraiva, C., Pereira, J. E., Capelo, J. L., Igrejas, G., & Poeta, P. (2022). Multidrug-resistant methicillin-resistant coagulase-negative staphylococci in healthy poultry slaughtered for human consumption. Antibiotics (Basel, Switzerland), 11(3), 365. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics11030365
  214. Singh, S., Kriti, M., Anamika, K. S., Sharma, P., Pal, N., Sarma, D. K., Tiwari, R., & Kumar, M. (2025). A One Health approach addressing poultry-associated antimicrobial resistance: Human, animal and environmental perspectives. The Microbe, 7, Article 100309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microb.2025.100309
  215. Skowron, K., Wałecka-Zacharska, E., Wiktorczyk-Kapischke, N., Skowron, K. J., Grudlewska-Buda, K., Bauza-Kaszewska, J., Bernaciak, Z., Borkowski, M., & Gospodarek-Komkowska, E. (2020). Assessment of the prevalence and drug susceptibility of Listeria monocytogenes strains isolated from various types of meat. Foods (Basel, Switzerland), 9(9), 1293. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9091293
  216. Song, F., Li, W., Zhao, X., Hou, S., Wang, Y., Wang, S., Gao, J., Chen, X., Li, J., Zhang, R., Jiang, S., & Zhu, Y. (2024). Epidemiological and molecular investigations of Salmonella isolated from duck farms in southwest and around area of Shandong, China. Microbial Pathogenesis, 195, 106816. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micpath.2024.106816
  217. Ssemakadde, T., Pauline Petra, N., Busingye, J. C., Bazira, J., & Taseera, K. (2025). Prevalence and antimicrobial resistance of Salmonella and pathogenic E. coli in broiler farms, Wakiso district, Uganda. PLoS One, 20(7), e0309599. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0309599
  218. Starkova, D., Egorova, S., Suzhaeva, L., Nguyen, T. Q., Kaftyreva, L., Makarova, M., Zhamborova, S., Polev, D., Saitova, A., Nguyen, V. H., Vo, T. K., & Nguyen, L. T. (2025). Antimicrobial resistance and phylogenetic analysis of multidrug-resistant non-typhoidal Salmonella isolates from different sources in Southern Vietnam. Antibiotics (Basel, Switzerland), 14(5), 489. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics14050489
  219. Stępień-Pyśniak, D., Marek, A., Banach, T., Adaszek, Ł., Pyzik, E., Wilczyński, J., & Winiarczyk, S. (2016). Prevalence and antibiotic resistance of Enterococcus strains isolated from poultry. Acta Veterinaria Hungarica, 64(2), 148–163. https://doi.org/10.1556/004.2016.016
  220. Stępień-Pyśniak, D., Hauschild, T., Dec, M., Marek, A., Brzeski, M., & Kosikowska, U. (2021). Antimicrobial resistance and genetic diversity of Enterococcus faecalis from yolk sac infections in broiler chicks. Poultry Science, 100(12), 101491. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psj.2021.101491
  221. Stępień-Pyśniak, D., Hauschild, T., Łopucki, R., Kosikowska, U., Wilczyński, J., Brzeski, M., Matusevičius, P., & Christensen, H. (2025). Differences in tests of phenotypic colistin resistance in clinical Escherichia coli isolates from poultry and their genetic diversity. Veterinary Microbiology, 307, 110581. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2025.110581
  222. Syed, M. A., Ullah, H., Tabassum, S., Fatima, B., Woodley, T. A., Ramadan, H., & Jackson, C. R. (2020). Staphylococci in poultry intestines: a comparison between farmed and household chickens. Poultry Science, 99(9), 4549–4557. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psj.2020.05.051
  223. Szabó, Á., Jerzsele, Á., Kovács, L., & Kerek, Á. (2025). Antimicrobial susceptibility profiles of commensal Staphylococcus spp. isolates from chickens in Hungarian poultry farms between 2022 and 2023. Antibiotics (Basel, Switzerland), 14(1), 103. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics14010103
  224. Tang, B., Zou, C., Schwarz, S., Xu, C., Hao, W., Yan, X. M., Huang, Y., Ni, J., Yang, H., Du, X. D., & Shan, X. (2023). Linezolid-resistant Enterococcus faecalis of chicken origin harbored chromosome-borne optrA and plasmid-borne cfr, cfr(D), and poxtA2 genes. Microbiology Spectrum, 11(3), e0274122. https://doi.org/10.1128/spectrum.02741-22
  225. Tang, M., Zhou, Q., Zhang, X., Zhou, S., Zhang, J., Tang, X., Lu, J., & Gao, Y. (2020). Antibiotic resistance profiles and molecular mechanisms of Campylobacter from chicken and pig in China. Frontiers in Microbiology, 11, 592496. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2020.592496
  226. Tegegne, H. A., Koláčková, I., Florianová, M., Gelbíčová, T., Madec, J. Y., Haenni, M., & Karpíšková, R. (2021). Detection and molecular characterisation of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolated from raw meat in the retail market. Journal of Global Antimicrobial Resistance, 26, 233–238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jgar.2021.06.012
  227. Thomrongsuwannakij, T., Blackall, P. J., Djordjevic, S. P., Cummins, M. L., & Chansiripornchai, N. (2020). A comparison of virulence genes, antimicrobial resistance profiles and genetic diversity of avian pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC) isolates from broilers and broiler breeders in Thailand and Australia. Avian Pathology: Journal of the W.V.P.A, 49(5), 457–466. https://doi.org/10.1080/03079457.2020.1764493
  228. Tian, T., Bao, Y., Hui, J., Gao, Y., Wang, L., Zhao, J., Hao, X., Song, C., Wang, J., & Zhao, G. (2025). Analysis of avian pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC) and its antimicrobial resistance risk characteristics and critical control points in laying hens. Poultry Science, 104(12), 106049. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psj.2025.106049
  229. Timur, N. P. V. T., Kristianingrum, Y. P., Suardana, I. W., & Wibowo, M. H. (2025). Phenotypic and resistance patterns of avian pathogenic Escherichia coli isolated from commercial poultry farm. Tropical Animal Science Journal, 49(1), 79–87. https://doi.org/10.5398/tasj.2026.49.1.79
  230. Tiseo, K., Huber, L., Gilbert, M., Robinson, T. P., & Van Boeckel, T. P. (2020). Global trends in antimicrobial use in food animals from 2017 to 2030. Antibiotics (Basel, Switzerland), 9(12), 918. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics9120918
  231. Tuominen, K. S., Sternberg Lewerin, S., Jacobson, M., & Rosendal, T. (2022). Modelling environmentally mediated spread of livestock-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in a pig herd. Animal: an International Journal of Animal Bioscience, 16(2), 100450. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.animal.2021.100450
  232. Tyc, J., Kalwasińska, A., Olszewska-Tomczyk, M., & Woźniakowski, G. (2026). Phylogenetic analysis and susceptibility to antibiotics and phytogenics of Riemerella anatipestifer strains isolated in Poland. Journal of Veterinary Research, 70(1), 33–42. https://doi.org/10.2478/jvetres-2026-0019
  233. Tyson, G. H., Sabo, J. L., Rice-Trujillo, C., Hernandez, J., & McDermott, P. F. (2018). Whole-genome sequencing based characterization of antimicrobial resistance in Enterococcus. Pathogens and Disease, 76(2), 10.1093/femspd/fty018. https://doi.org/10.1093/femspd/fty018
  234. Ünal, N., Bal, E., Karagöz, A., Altun, B., & Koçak, N. (2020). Detection of vancomycin-resistant enterococci in samples from broiler flocks and houses in Turkey. Acta Veterinaria Hungarica, 68(2), 117–122. https://doi.org/10.1556/004.2020.00024
  235. Urban-Chmiel, R., & Pyzik, E. (2025). Selected mechanisms of action of bacteriophages in bacterial infections in animals. Viruses, 17(1), 101. https://doi.org/10.3390/v17010101
  236. Urban-Chmiel, R., Marek, A., Stępień-Pyśniak, D., Wieczorek, K., Dec, M., Nowaczek, A., & Osek, J. (2022). Antibiotic resistance in bacteria – A review. Antibiotics (Basel, Switzerland), 11(8), 1079. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics11081079
  237. Urban-Chmiel, R., Osek, J., & Wieczorek, K. (2025). Methods of controlling microbial contamination of food. Pathogens (Basel, Switzerland), 14(5), 492. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050492
  238. USDA Report (2024). Poultry and products annual (Report No. E42024-0027). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Foreign Agricultural Service. https://apps.fas.usda.gov/newgainapi/api/Report/DownloadReportByFileName? fileName = Poultry%20and%20Products%20Annual_Paris_European%20Union_E42024-0027
  239. Van Cuong, N., Kiet, B. T., Phu, D. H., Van, N. T. B., Hien, V. B., Thwaites, G., Carrique-Mas, J., & Choisy, M. (2021). Effects of prophylactic and therapeutic antimicrobial uses in small-scale chicken flocks. Zoonoses and Public Health, 68(5), 483–492. https://doi.org/10.1111/zph.12839
  240. Vaster Life Sciences. (2025). Phagex-ES: Unique cocktail of bacteriophages for poultry. https://www.vasterlifesciences.com/phagex-es.php
  241. Velhner, M., Prunić, B., Aleksić, N., Todorović, D., Knežević, S., & Ljubojević Pelić, D. (2024). Antimicrobial resistance of Enterococcus isolates from poultry farms in the Republic of Serbia (Autonomous Province of Vojvodina). Microorganisms, 12(7), 1483. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms12071483
  242. Vikram, A., Woolston, J., & Sulakvelidze, A. (2021). Phage biocontrol applications in food production and processing. Current Issues in Molecular Biology, 40, 267–302. https://doi.org/10.21775/cimb.040.267
  243. Vikram, A., Callahan, M. T., Woolston, J. W., Sharma, M., & Sulakvelidze, A. (2022). Phage biocontrol for reducing bacterial foodborne pathogens in produce and other foods. Current Opinion in Biotechnology, 78, 102805. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copbio.2022.102805
  244. Vo, T. T., Dang, V. T., Le, D. H., & Nguyen, T. H. (2022). Identification, serotyping, and antimicrobial susceptibility of Riemerella anatipestifer isolated from ducks in Vietnam. Open Veterinary Journal, 12(3), 391–398. https://doi.org/10.5455/OVJ.2022.v12.i3.13
  245. Wang, C., Wang, X., Hao, J., Kong, H., Zhao, L., Li, M., Zou, M., & Liu, G. (2024). Serotype distribution and antimicrobial resistance of Salmonella isolates from poultry sources in China. Antibiotics (Basel, Switzerland), 13(10), 959. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics13100959
  246. Wang, M., Yao, Y., Yang, Y., Zhu, D., Wang, M., Jia, R., Chen, S., Zhao, X., Yang, Q., Wu, Y., Zhang, S., Huang, J., Ou, X., Tian, B., Sun, D., Zhang, L., Yu, Y., He, Y., Wu, Z., Cheng, A., Liu, M. (2025). The characterization of outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) and their role in mediating antibiotic-resistance gene transfer through natural transformation in Riemerella anatipestifer. Poultry Science, 104(2), 104730. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psj.2024.104730
  247. Wernicki, A., Nowaczek, A., & Urban-Chmiel, R. (2017). Bacteriophage therapy to combat bacterial infections in poultry. Virology Journal, 14(1), 179. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12985-017-0849-7
  248. Wessels, K., Rip, D., & Gouws, P. (2021). Salmonella in chicken meat: Consumption, outbreaks, characteristics, current control methods and the potential of bacteriophage use. Foods (Basel, Switzerland), 10(8), 1742. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10081742
  249. Wieczorek, K., Bocian, Ł., & Osek, J. (2020). Prevalence and antimicrobial resistance of Campylobacter isolated from carcasses of chickens slaughtered in Poland – a retrospective study. Food Control, 112, 107159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2020.107159
  250. Wieczorek, K., Bocian, Ł., & Osek, J. (2021). Bovine and pig carcasses as a source of Campylobacter in Poland: A reservoir for antimicrobial-resistant Campylobacter coli. Foodborne Pathogens and Disease, 18(7), 462–468. https://doi.org/10.1089/fpd.2020.2914
  251. Wiese, M., Klaassens, E. S., Hatt, V., Kreikamp, A., Baak, M. L., Heerikhuisen, M., & Van Der Vossen, J. M. B. M. (2025). Demonstration of phage inhibitory action against Clostridium perfringens LMG 11264 within a complex chicken cecal microbiota in vitro. Frontiers in Antibiotics, 4, 1599939. https://doi.org/10.3389/frabi.2025.1599939
  252. Wigmore, S. M., Greenhill, A. R., & Bean, D. C. (2024). Isolation and characterization of enterococci from poultry reveals high incidence of Enterococcus thailandicus in Victoria, Australia. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 135(8), lxae194. https://doi.org/10.1093/jambio/lxae194
  253. Wittebole, X., De Roock, S., & Opal, S. M. (2014). A historical overview of bacteriophage therapy as an alternative to antibiotics for the treatment of bacterial pathogens. Virulence, 5(1), 226–235. https://doi.org/10.4161/viru.25991
  254. World Health Organization (2024). WHO bacterial priority pathogens list, 2024: Bacterial pathogens of public health importance to guide research, development and strategies to prevent and control antimicrobial resistance.
  255. World Organisation for Animal Health (2024). Annual report on antimicrobial agents intended for use in animals: 8th report. https://www.woah.org/app/uploads/2024/05/woah-amu-report-2024-final.pdf
  256. Woźniak-Biel, A., Bugla-Płoskońska, G., Burdzy, J., Korzekwa, K., Ploch, S., & Wieliczko, A. (2019). Antimicrobial resistance and biofilm formation in Enterococcus spp. isolated from humans and turkeys in Poland. Microbial Drug Resistance (Larchmont, N.Y.), 25(2), 277–286. https://doi.org/10.1089/mdr.2018.0221
  257. Xihui, Z., Yanlan, L., Zhiwei, W., Zheyu, P., Zhenshu, S., Cheng, L., Jianbiao, L., Shengliang, C., Lanying, P., & Yubao, L. (2023). Antibiotic resistance of Riemerella anatipestifer and comparative analysis of antibiotic-resistance gene detection methods. Poultry Science, 102(3), 102405. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psj.2022.102405
  258. Yan, M., Song, X., Chen, H., Zhang, H., Li, Y., Liu, D., Liu, B., & Zou, M. (2026). Study on antimicrobial resistance and molecular characteristics of Riemerella anatipestifer. Animals: an Open Access Journal from MDPI, 16(3), 442. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani16030442
  259. Yang, Z., Lan, T., Luo, H., Li, P., Wang, M., Jia, R., Chen, S., Liu, M., Zhao, X., Yang, Q., Wu, Y., Zhang, S., Huang, J., Ou, X., Mao, S., Gao, Q., Sun, D., Tian, B., Cheng, A., & Zhu, D. (2024a). Emergence and mobilization of a novel lincosamide resistance gene lnu(I): From environmental reservoirs to pathogenic bacteria. The Science of the Total Environment, 906, 167400. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.167400
  260. Yang, Z., Yang, X., Wang, M., Jia, R., Chen, S., Liu, M., Zhao, X., Yang, Q., Wu, Y., Zhang, S., Huang, J., Ou, X., Mao, S., Gao, Q., Sun, D., Tian, B., Zhu, D., & Cheng, A. (2024b). Genome-wide association study reveals serovar-associated genetic loci in Riemerella anatipestifer. BMC Genomics, 25(1), 57. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12864-024-09988-4
  261. Yuki N. (2001). Infectious origins of, and molecular mimicry in, Guillain-Barré and Fisher syndromes. The Lancet. Infectious Diseases, 1(1), 29–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(01)00019-6
  262. Zampara, A., Martine, C., Holst-Sørensen, M. C., Elsser-Gravesen, A. A., & Brøndsted, L. (2017). Significance of phage-host interactions for biocontrol of Campylobacter jejuni in food. Food Control, 73, 1169–1175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2016.10.033
  263. Zawiasa, A., Schmidt, M., & Olejnik-Schmidt, A. (2025). Phage-based control of Listeria innocua in the food industry: A strategy for preventing Listeria monocytogenes persistence in biofilms. Viruses, 17(4), 482. https://doi.org/10.3390/v17040482
  264. Żbikowska, K., Michalczuk, M., & Dolka, B. (2020). The use of bacteriophages in the poultry industry. Animals: an Open Access Journal from MDPI, 10(5), 872. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10050872
  265. Zhang, X., Tang, M., Zhou, Q., Lu, J., Zhang, H., Tang, X., Ma, L., Zhang, J., Chen, D., & Gao, Y. (2024). A broad host phage, CP6, for combating multidrug-resistant Campylobacter prevalent in poultry meat. Poultry Science, 103(4), 103548. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psj.2024.103548
  266. Zhou, M., Yang, Z., Wang, M., Jia, R., Chen, S., Liu, M., Zhao, X., Yang, Q., Wu, Y., Zhang, S., Huang, J., Ou, X., Sun, D., Tian, B., He, Y., Wu, Z., Cheng, A., & Zhu, D. (2026). Identification and characteristics of a novel acquired aminoglycoside phosphotransferase, APH(3’)-IVb, from Riemerella anatipestifer. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 70(5), e0163125. https://doi.org/10.1128/aac.01631-25
  267. Zhou, Y., Wu, K., Lin, H., Hu, Y. L., Xu, W., Zhang, J., Zhou, S., Yu, K., Liu, C. G., Wang, H. N., & Lei, C. W. (2025). Whole genome sequencing of Salmonella in poultry from China reveals the presence of blaNDM-5 in different serotypes. Poultry Science, 104(11), 105647. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psj.2025.105647
  268. Zhu, D. K., Luo, H. Y., Liu, M. F., Zhao, X. X., Jia, R. Y., Chen, S., Sun, K. F., Yang, Q., Wu, Y., Chen, X. Y., Cheng, A. C., & Wang, M. S. (2018). Various profiles of tet genes addition to tet(X) in Riemerella anatipestifer isolates from ducks in China. Frontiers in Microbiology, 9, 585. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2018.00585
  269. Zhu, D., Zheng, M., Xu, J., Wang, M., Jia, R., Chen, S., Liu, M., Zhao, X., Yang, Q., Wu, Y., Zhang, S., Huang, J., Liu, Y., Zhang, L., Yu, Y., Pan, L., Chen, X., & Cheng, A. (2019). Prevalence of fluoroquinolone resistance and mutations in the gyrA, parC and parE genes of Riemerella anatipestifer isolated from ducks in China. BMC Microbiology, 19(1), 271. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12866-019-1659-4
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/aoas-2027-0024 | Journal eISSN: 2300-8733 (formerly 1642-3402) | Journal ISSN: 1642-3402
Language: English
Submitted on: Jun 19, 2026
Accepted on: Sep 4, 2026
Published on: Oct 30, 2026
Published by: National Research Institute of Animal Production
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services
Publication frequency: 4 issues per year
Related subjects:

© 2026 Renata Urban-Chmiel, Marta Dec, Agnieszka Marek, Dagmara Stepień-Pyśniak, Anna Nowaczek, Klaudia Herman-Ostrzyżek, Magdalena Zając, Ewelina Pyzik, published by National Research Institute of Animal Production
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License.