Figure 1.
The types of vaccines and the mechanisms by which they activate the immune system using various administration methods in aquaculture
Figure 2.
The advantages and disadvantages of monovalent and polyvalent vaccines in aquaculture
Figure 3.
The advantages and disadvantages of injectable, immersion, and oral vaccines
Table 1.
Comparison of the survival rate of monovalent and polyvalent oral vaccines in fish
| Diseases | Pathogens | Fish | Types of vaccines | Mono/polyvalent | Effects | RPS (%) | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 |
| Lactococcosis | L. garviae | Oncorhynchus mykiss | Formalin-killed cells (FKCs) | Monovalent | – | L. garviae 50% | (Romalde et al., 2004) |
| Aeromonasis and Pseudomoniasis | A. hydrophila + A. sobria + A. caviae + Pseudomonas fluorescens | Oreochromis sp. | FKCs | Mono- and polyvalent | – | A. hydrophila 63%, A. sobria 86%, A. caviae 66%, P. fluorescens 70%, | (Osman et al., 2009) |
| Salmon rickettsial septicaemia (SRS) | P. salmonis | Salmo salar | P. salmonis PS2C field strain in MicroMatrix | Monovalent | ↔Weight gain, ↑ P. salmonis antibodies in the intestinal mucosa | P. salmonis 85–90% | (Tobar et al., 2011) |
| Enteric redmouth disease (ERM) | Yersinia ruckeri | O. mykiss | Commercial AquaVac ERM (Merck Animal Health) | Monovalent | ↔ Antibody titer | Y. ruckeri 100% | (Villumsen et al., 2014) |
| Enteric septicaemia of catfish | Edwardsiella ictaluri | Ictalurus punctatus | Live attenuated | Monovalent | ↑ Antibody titer, ↓ FCR | E. ictaluri 82.6–100% | (Wise et al., 2015) |
| SRS | P. salmonis + ISA virus | S. salar, Oncorhynchus mykiss, and Oncorhynchus kisutch | Commercial vaccines | Mono- and polyvalent | ↑ Antibody titer, anti-SRS and anti-ISAv specific IgM | – | (Tobar et al., 2015) |
| Yersiniosis | Y. ruckeri | Salmo salar | Bacterins | Monovalent | ↔ Antibody titer | Y. ruckeri 51% | (Ghosh et al., 2016) |
| Epizootic ulcerative syndrome | A. veronii | Cyprinus carpio | Recombinant OmpAI | Monovalent | ↑ Serum and mucus IgM, lysozyme, SOD, IL-10, IL-1β, IFN-γ, TNF-α | A. veronii 66.7% | (Zhang et al., 2018) |
| Streptococcosis | S. iniae | I. punctatus | Recombinant protein in alginate/chitosan | Monovalent | ↑ Antibody titer, lysozyme, total protein, IFN-γ, TNF-α, CD4L-2 | S. iniae 60% | (Wang et al., 2018) |
| Lactococcosis/Streptococcosis | L. garviae + S. iniae | O. mykiss | FKCs + coated bacteria (film) | Bivalent | ↔Bactericidal activity, lysozyme, NBT, ↑IL-6, IgM, antibody titer | L. garviae 72.21%, S. iniae 85% | (Halimi et al., 2018) |
| Edwardsiellosis | E. tarda | Labeo rohita | DNA in chitosan | Monovalent | ↑ Antibody titer, lysozyme, NBT, MPO | E. tarda 81.82% | (Kole et al., 2018) |
| Edwardsiellosis | E. tarda | Channel and hybrid catfish | Live attenuated | Monovalent | – | E. tarda 61.9–80.6% | (Chatakondi et al., 2018) |
| SRS | P. salmonis | S. salar | Providean Aquatech 1 Anasac in alginate | Monovalent | ↔Growth parameters, ↑ IgM | – | (Sotomayor-Gerding et al., 2020) |
| Streptococcosis and aeromonasis | S. iniae + A. hydrophila | O. niloticus × O. mossambicus | FKCs | Mono- and bivalent | ↑ Lysozyme, phagocytic activity and, serum antibody (IgM) | S. iniae 70%, S. iniae + A. hydrophila against S. iniae 80%, A. hydrophila 63.33%, S. iniae + A. hydrophila against A. hydrophila 76.67%, S. iniae + A. hydrophila against both S. iniae and A. hydrophila 76.67% | (Monir et al., 2020) |
| Lactococcosis | Lactococcus garvieae | Mugil cephalus | Biofilm + FKCs | Monovalent | ↑ Phagocytic activity, IgM titers, TNF-α, TLR2, IL-1β (biofilm) | Biofilm vaccine 77%, FKCs vaccine 18% | (Su and Chen, 2021) |
| Streptococcosis and aeromonasis | S. iniae + A. hydrophila | O. niloticus × O. mossambicus | FKCs | Mono- and bivalent | ↑ IL-8, IgM, IFN-γ (spleen, head kidney and hindgut) in polyvalent | S. iniae 71.11%, A. hydrophila 64.44%, S. iniae + A. hydrophila against S. iniae 82.22%, S. iniae + A. hydrophila against A. hydrophila 77.78% | (Monir et al., 2021) |
| Vibriosis, streptococcosis and aeromonasis | Vibrio harveyi + A. hydrophila + S. agalactiae | Lates calcarifer | FKCs | Polyvalent | ↑ CCL4, dendritic cells, C3, MHC I, β-actin, and lysozyme | 75% against V. harveyi, 80% against S. agalactiae, and 80% against A. hydrophila | (Mohamad et al., 2021) |
| Vibriosis | V. harveyi | Epinephelus sp. | FKCs | Monovalent | ↑ Antibody level of IgM against V. harveyi, antibody level of IgM against V. parahaemolyticus, antibody level of IgM against V. alginolyticus | V. harveyi 75%, V. parahaemolyticus 85%, V. alginolyticus 70%, V. harveyi + V. parahaemolyticus + V. alginolyticus 70% | (Mohamad et al., 2022) |
| Streptococcosis and aeromonasis | Streptococcus iniae + Aeromonas hydrophila | Oreochromis sp. | FKCs | Bivalent | ↑ CD4, MHC-I, MHC-II, IgT, C-type lysozyme, IL-1β, TNF-α, and TGF-β | S. iniae 82%, A. hydrophila 77% | (Monir et al., 2022) |
| Aeromonasis | A. hydrophila + A. veronii | Heteropneustes fossilis, Clarias batrachus and Pangasius pangasius | FKCs | Bivalent | ↑ Lymphocytes, monocytes granulocytes counts, and antibody (IgM) titer | H. fossilis 91.24%, C. batrachus 88.09%, P. pangasius 93.17% against A. hydrophila and A. veronii | (Rahman et al., 2022) |
| Aeromonasis | A. salmonicida | Labrus bergylta | FKCs | Monovalent | ↑ MHC II and IgM post challenge with A. salmonicida (kidney and spleen) | A. salmonicida 66–72% | (Papadopoulou et al., 2022) |
| Streptococcosis and columnaris | S. iniae + Flavobacterium covae | L. calcarifer | FKCs | Bivalent | ↑ IgM, bactericidal activity against S. iniae, lysozyme, gene expression of IgM, IgT, and MHCIIα, ↔growth parameters | S. iniae 75.70%, F. covae 77.78% | (Meachasompop et al., 2023) |
| Streptococcosis and aeromonasis | S. agalactiae + A. hydrophila | Oreochromis sp. | FKCs | Bivalent | ↔Growh parameter, ↑ IgM and lysozyme | S. agalactiae 80%, A. hydrophila 90% | (Mohd Ali et al., 2023) |
| Streptococcosis and columnaris | S. iniae + F. covae | L. calcarifer | FKCs | Mono- and polyvalent | – | S. iniae 33.8%, F. covae 23.1%, S. iniae + F. covae against S. iniae 10.5%, S. iniae + F. covae against F. covae 11.3% | (Tumree et al., 2024) |
[i] Symbols: ↑: significant increase; ↓: significant decrease; ↔: ineffective. RPS: relative percent survival; FCR: feed conversion ratio; IgM: immunoglobulin M; TNF-α: tumor necrosis factor-alpha; TLR2: toll-like receptor 2; IL-1β: interleukin-1 beta; SOD: superoxide dismutase; IL-10: interleukin-10; IFN-γ: interferon-gamma; IL-8: interleukin-8; CCL4: chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 4; C3: complement component 3; MHC I: major histocompatibility complex class I; IgT: immunoglobulin T; TGF-β: transforming growth factor-beta.
Table 2.
Comparison of the survival rate of monovalent and polyvalent immersion vaccines in fish
| Diseases | Pathogens | Fish | Types of vaccines | Mono/polyvalent | Effects | RPS (%) | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 |
| Vibriosis/ pasteurellosis | V. anguillarum + Pasteurella piscicida | Dicentrarchus labrax | Formalin-killed cells (FKCs) | Bivalent | – | V. anguillarum 100%, P. piscicida ~ 95%, | (Gravningen et al., 1998) |
| Streptococcosis | S. iniae | O. mykiss | FKCs | Monovalent | – | S. iniae (multiple puncture/immersion 60%, immersion 20%) | (Nakanishi et al., 2002) |
| Streptococcosis | S. agalactiae | O. niloticus | FKCs | Monovalent | – | S. agalactiae 3.6 × 105: 34%, 1.7 × 106: 35% | (Evans et al., 2004) |
| Vibriosis | V. vulnificus (strains CECT4604 and CECT5198) | Anguilla anguilla | FKCs | Bivalent | ↑ Antibody titer (skin mucus), ↑ lysozyme, | V. vulnificus 57% | (Esteve-Gassent et al., 2004) |
| Edwardsiellosis | E. ictaluri | Pangasianodon hypophthalmus | FKCs | Monovalent | – | E. ictaluri 47% | (Thinh et al., 2009) |
| Streptococcosis | S. iniae | Morone chrysops × Morone saxatilis | Live attenuated | Monovalent | – | S. iniae (41–100%) | (Locke et al., 2010) |
| Edwardsiellosis | E. tarda | S. maximus | Live attenuated | Monovalent | ↑ IL-1β-IFN-γ, MHC I, IgM, CD8 | E. tarda 35.7–63.3% | (Xiao et al., 2013) |
| Edwardsiellosis and vibriosis | E. tarda + V. anguillarum | S. maximus | vaccine-containing microspheres | Mono- and bivalent | ↑ NBT, ↑Antibody titer (against E. tarda and V. anguillarum) | Bivalent against E. tarda 78.8% and against V. anguillarum 93.5% | (Wang et al., 2013) |
| Francisellosis | Francisella noatunensis subsp. orientalis | O. niloticus × Oreochromis mossambicus | FKCs | Monovalent | ↑ Antibody titer (25 and 30°C), | F. noatunensis (fry 50% 30°C, fingerlings 35% 30°C) | (Soto et al., 2014) |
| Edwardsiellosis | E. tarda | Paralichthys olivaceus | FKCs | Monovalent | ↑Serum and mucus antibody titer | E. tarda (106 CFU/ml: 30min 9%, 60min 26%, 90min 35%), (107 CFU/ml: 30min 35%, 60min 48%, 90min 65%), (108 CFU/ml: 30min 52%, 60min 78%, 90min 74%), (109 CFU/ml: 30min 70%, 60min 56%, 90min 45%) | (Du et al., 2015) |
| Bacterial coldwater disease (BCWD) | F. psychrophilum | O. mykiss (fry) | FKCs | Polyvalent (two strains of F. psychrophilum from trout and one recovered from Atlantic salmon) | ↔Serum IgM, ↑ serum IgT, gene expression ↑ IL-1β (head-kidney), IgM, IgT (hind-gut), TLR-2 (skin), ↓ IL-1β (gill), CD8α (head kidney), CD4-1 and CD8α (spleen) | F. psychrophilum 84% | (Hoare et al., 2017) |
| Motile Aeromonas septicemia (MAS) | A. hydrophila | Ictalurus furcatus × Ictalurus punctatus | FKCs | Monovalent | – | A. hydrophila 90–91% | (Shoemaker et al., 2018) |
| Staphylococcosis | Staphylococcus aureus | Labeo rohita | FKCs | Monovalent | – | S. aureus 68% after 30 days, 76% after 60 days | (Deepalakshmi and Brindha Devi, 2018) |
| Streptococcosis, lactococcosis, enterococcosis | S. agalactiae + S. iniae + L. garviae + Enterococcus faecalis | O. niloticus | FKCs | Polyvalent | ↔ Agglutination titers, ↑Microagglutination, blood parameter, biochemical, lysozyme | Less than 40% (S. agalactiae, S. iniae, L. garviae, E. faecalis) | (Abu-Elala et al., 2019) |
| Edwardsiellosis | E. ictaluri | Pangasius hypophthalmus | Live attenuated | Monovalent | – | E. ictaluri 89.29–90% | (Triet et al., 2019) |
| BCWD | F. psychrophilum | O. mykiss | Live attenuated | Monovalent | ↑ Specific anti-F. psychrophilum antibody titers (after 2, 4, 6, and 8 weeks post vaccination), | F. psychrophilum 51–72% | (Ma et al., 2019 b) |
| Streptococcosis and vibriosis | S. iniae + V. harveyi | L. calcarifer | FKCs | Monovalent and bivalent | ↔ Growth parameters, cholesterol and triglyceride, ↓glucose (monovalent S. iniae), ↑ calcium (monovalent S. iniae), ↔ bactericidal activity, ↓ ACH50 (monovalent V. harveyi, ↑ lysozyme (bivalent S. iniae and V. harveyi) | S. iniae 20% (movovalent), S. iniae 30% (bivalent), V. harveyi 30% (monovalent) V. harveyi 40% (bivalent) | (Mohammadi et al., 2021) |
| Streptococcosis and motile Aeromonads septicaemia | S. agalactiae + A. hydrophila | O. niloticus | FKCs | Bivalent | ↑ Antibody titer (against S. agalactiae and A. hydrophila after 1, 2 and 3 weeks) | The challenged bacteria are not available 60.86–64.55% | (Sugiani et al., 2021) |
| Streptococcosis/lactococcosis and yersiniosis | S. iniae + L. garvieae + Y. ruckeri | O. mykiss | FKCs | Polyvalent | ↑ %WG, WBC, % Hct, Complement, ↔ lysozyme, ↑ antibody titers against streptococcosis, against lactococcosis and against yersiniosis (20, 40 and 60th) | S. iniae (50%), L. garvieae (70%) and Y. ruckeri (60%) | (Erfanmanesh, et al., 2023 a) |
| Streptococcosis | S. agalactiae | O. niloticus | FKCs | Monovalent | ↑ Antibody titer, gene expression of Ig, blood parameters | S. agalactiae (106 CFU/fish 86.67, 108 CFU/fish 83.33, 1010 CFU/fish 76.67) | (Khunrang et al., 2023) |
| Streptococcosis/ lactococosis and yersiniosis | S. iniae + L. garvieae, + Y. ruckeri | O. mykiss | FKCs | Polyvalent | ↑ Antibody titer (against S. iniae, L. garvieae, and Y. ruckeri), complement, lysozyme, | S. iniae 56.6%, L. garvieae 53.3% and Y. ruckeri 66.6% | (Erfanmanesh, et al., 2023 b) |
| Streptococcosis | S. iniae | L. calcarifer | Heat-killed | Monovalent | ↑ IgM levels against S. iniae, gene expression of MHCI, MHCII, CD8, and CD4, TNFα, IL-1β, IgM-like, IgT-like, and IgD-like | – | (Vinh et al., 2023) |
| Vibriosis | V. harveyi | L. calcarifer | Heat-inactivated | Monovalent | ↑ Antibody titer (serum, mucus and gut), gene expression of IL-1β (head kidney 7, 21, 28 day(s)), IL-1β (spleen 14, 21 day (s)), TNF-α (head kidney 21, 28 day(s)), TNF-α (spleen 14, 21 day (s)), CD4 (head kidney 28 day(s)), CD4 (spleen 7, 14, 28)), CD8 (head kidney 7, 14, 28 day(s)), CD8 (spleen 7, 14, 21)), IgM (head kidney 28) | V. harveyi 83% | (Lan et al., 2024 a) |
| Vibriosis | V. harveyi + chitosan + oxygen nanobubbles | L. calcarifer | Heat-inactivated | Monovalent | ↑ Antibody titer (serum and mucus), IgM (serum and mucus), gene expression of IL-1β, TNF-α, CD4, CD8, IgT (gill, head kidney, spleen) | V. harveyi 63% | (Lan et al., 2024 b) |
| Streptococcosis and vibriosis | S. iniae + V. harveyi | L. calcarifer | FKCs | Mono/bivalent | ↔ Blood parameters, biochemical parameters, NBT, lysozyme, complement, bactericidal, ↑ antibody titer (S. iniae, and V. harveyi) | S. iniae 66.6%, V. harveyi 76.6%, | (Erfanmanesh et al., 2024) |
| Streptococcosis | S. iniae + S. agalactiae | Tilapia | Recombinant (nanocarrier) | Bivalent | ↑ Serum antibody levels until 4 weeks, ↑ serum acid phosphatase, alkaline phosphatase, lysozyme, and total antioxidant capacity, ↑ immune-related genes (IL1β, IL-6, CD8α, CD4-1, IgM, MHC I, MHC II, IFN-γ, TNF-α) | S. agalactiae 75% and S. iniae 72.4% | (Cao et al., 2024) |
[i] Symbols: ↑: significant increase; ↓: significant decrease; ↔: ineffective. RPS: relative percent survival. NBT: nitroblue tetrazolium, IgM: immunoglobulin M, TNF-α: tumor necrosis factor-alpha, TLR2: toll-like receptor 2, IL-1β: interleukin-1 beta, SOD: superoxide dismutase, IL-10: interleukin-10, IFN-γ: interferon-gamma, IL-8: interleukin-8, CCL4: chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 4, C3: complement component 3, MHC I: major histocompatibility complex class I, IgT: immunoglobulin T.
Table 3.
Comparison of the survival rate of monovalent and polyvalent injection vaccines in fish
| Diseases | Pathogens | Fish | Types of vaccines | Mono/polyvalent | Effects | RPS (%) | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 |
| Streptococcosis | S. agalactiae (five strains NK1, N17O, N14G, N3M and N4M) | Broodstock of O. niloticus | Formalin-killed cells (FKCs) | Polyvalent | ↑ Leukocyte, phagocytic activity (PA), respiratory burst (RB), and lysozyme activity, ↑ antibody titer (NK1, N17O, N14G, N3M and N4M) | S. agalactiae (against five strains): 5th day: 77.78%, 10th day: 72.36%, 15th day: 62.20%, 20th day: 51.56% | (Nakanishi et al., 2002) |
| Aeromonads septicaemia, pseudomonasis, enterococcosis | A. hydrophila + P. aeruginosa + E. durans | O. niloticus | FKCs | Polyvalent | ↑ Hematological parameters, ↔ glucose, serum agglutination titer against (A. hydrophila, P. aeruginosa and E. durans), ↔ anti-microbial activity against A. hydrophila and E. durans, ↑ anti-microbial activity against P. aeruginosa and E. coli | – | (Silva et al., 2009) |
| Aeromonads septicaemia, lactococcosis | A. hydrophila (QSP 1.1 and QSP 10.1) + L. garvieae (TW446.B3) | O. mykiss | FKCs | Bivalent | ↑ Antibody titer | Aqueous bivalent against L. garvieae (100%) and against A. hydrophila (100%), Adjuvanted bivalent against L. garvieae (95.3%) and against A. hydrophila (95.3%) | (Bastardo et al., 2012) |
| BCWD, IPNV | F. psychrophilum + A. salmonicida + Listonella anguillarum O1 and O2, Moritella viscosa + Vibrio salmonicida + infectious pancreatic necrosis virus (IPNV) | O. mykiss | FKCs | Bivalent (F. psychrophilum + IPNV) and polyvalent (F. psychrophilum + A. salmonicida + Listonella anguillarum O1 and O2, Moritella viscosa + Vibrio salmonicida) | ↑ Antibody titer (bivalent and polyvalent) | Bivalent 77.5%, polyvalent 87% | (Fredriksen et al., 2013) |
| Streptococcosis and iridoviral disease | Iridovirus + S. iniae | Pagrus major | FKCs | Bivalent | – | IP against RSIV + 25°C + post 3 d: 69%, IP against S. iniae + 25°C + post 3 d: 90%, IP against RSIV+15°C + post 10 d: 88%, IP against S. iniae + 15°C + post 14 d: 89%, IM against RSIV + post 10 d: 100%, IM against RSIV + post 20 d: 65–96%, IM against S. iniae + post 14 d: 92–100% | (Thanasaksiri et al., 2018) |
| BCWD | F. psychrophilum | O. mykiss | FKCs | Polyvalent (serotype Fd; AVU-2T/13, serotype Th; and AVU-3S/13, serotype FpT) + adjuvant (Montanide ISA 760VG) | ↑ Antibody titer | F. psychrophilum + adjuvant 100%, homologous 76%, heterologous 88% | (Hoare et al., 2019) |
| Streptococcosis / lactococosis and yersiniosis | S. iniae + L. garvieae + Y. ruckeri | O. mykiss | FKCs | Polyvalent | ↑ WG (%), WBC, hemoglobin, lysozyme, complement, ↑ antibody titer (against S. iniae, L. garvieae, and Y. ruckeri) | S. iniae 80%, L. garvieae 90% and Y. ruckeri 80% | (Erfanmanesh et al., 2023 a) |
| Vibriosis and streptococcosis | V. alginolyticus + V. harveyi + S. iniae | L. calcarifer | FKCs | Polyvalent | ↑ Antibody titer against V. harveyi, V. alginolyticus and S. iniae, ↑ lysozyme, ↔ complement, ↑ total Ig, total protein | Against V. alginolyticus (76.99–84.61%), against V. harveyi (82.14–85.71%), against S. iniae (60.87–69.56%) | (Ahangarzadeh et al., 2023) |
| Furunculosis, edwardsiellosis | A. salmonicida + E. tarda | Scophthalmus maximus | FKCs | Bivalent | ↑ Antibody titer against A. salmonicida and E. tarda 3 and 4 weeks post vaccination, lysozyme, TLR2, IL-1β, CD4, MHCI, and MHCII genes in the liver, spleen and kidney | 77.1% against A. salmonicida + E. tarda | (Su et al., 2023) |
| Streptococcosis / lactococosis and yersiniosis | S. iniae + L. garvieae, + Y. ruckeri | O. mykiss | FKCs | Polyvalent | ↑ Antibody titer (against S. iniae, L. garvieae, and Y. ruckeri), complement, lysozyme | S. iniae 70%, L. garvieae 60% and Y. ruckeri 76.6% | (Erfanmanesh et al., 2023 b) |
| Streptococcosis and vibriosis | S. iniae + V. harveyi | L. calcarifer | FKCs | Mono/bivalent | ↔ Blood parameters, ↑biochemical parameters, ↔NBT, ↑ lysozyme, complement, ↔bactericidal, ↑ antibody titer (S. iniae, and V. harveyi) | S. iniae 83.3%, V. harveyi 86.6% | (Erfanmanesh et al., 2024) |
| Streptococcosis | Streptococcus pyogenes | O. niloticus | FKCs | Monovalent | ↑ Total protein, ↑GSH, DPPH, ABTS, CAT, GR, SOD, ↔ MPO, NO, GST,GPx, ↑some hematological parameters | – | (Nasr-Eldahan et al., 2024) |
| Streptococcosis | S. iniae | O. niloticus | Live-attenuated | Monovalent | ↑ Lysozyme activity, serum bactericidal activity, acid phosphatase, alkaline phosphatase, NO | S. iniae 82.4% | (El-daim et al., 2024) |
| Streptococcosis and iridoviral disease | PISCIVAC™ Irido Si and S. iniae | L. calcarifer | FKCs | bivalent | – | 14 day post challenge with ISKNV CU (100.55 TCID50, 86–100%) and (S. iniae 7.7×106 CFU, 100%) | (Thanasaksiri et al., 2024) |
| Streptococcosis | AQUAVAC® STREP Sa (S. agalactiae) | O. niloticus | FKCs | Monovalent | ↑ Anti-S. agalactiae IgM levels until day 150 | S. agalactiae 15 day post challenge 71%, 30 day post challenge 93%, 150 day post challenge 94%, 180 day post challenge 70%, 210 day post challenge 86% and 300 day post challenge 67% | (Queiróz et al., 2024) |
| Vibriosis | V. anguillarum | O. niloticus | Heat-inactivated | Monovalent | – | V. anguillarum 73.3–86.6% | (Manimaran and Kannabiran, 2024) |