Table 1.
Examples of pathogens detected in river water (based on (Global Water Pathogen Project; Potgieter et al. 2020))
| Pathogen | Classification* |
|---|---|
| Aeromonas spp. | Waterborne |
| Escherichia coli | Water-based |
| Shigella spp. | Water-based |
| Legionella pneumophila | Water-based |
| Mycobacterium avium | Water-based |
| Pseudomonas aeruginosa | Water-based |
| Vibrio cholerae | Waterborne |
| Salmonella spp. | Water-based |
| Helicobacter pylori | Waterborne |
Figure 1.
Sources of microbial pathogens during flood (author’s elaboration using bioRender software).
Table 2.
Examples of pathogens detected in post-flood soils
| Microorganisms | Range of MICs (µg/mL) | Methodological remarks (medium type, colony counts, incubation time, and temperature) | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| Gram-positive bacteria | |||
| Clostridium perfringens | 1 | MHB, 105 cfu/mL, 24–48 h, 36°C | (Koburger et al. 2010) |
| Enterococcus faecalis | 4 | MHB, 105 cfu/mL, 24–48 h, 36°C | (Koburger et al. 2010) |
| 3.125–6.25 | TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24–48 h, 37°C | (Karpiński, et al. 2025a) | |
| E. faecium | 0.49–1.95 | TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24 h, 37°C | (Dydak et al. 2021) |
| 3.125–6.25 | TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24–48 h, 37°C | (Karpiński, et al. 2025a) | |
| E. hirae | 0.6–10 | TSB, 108–109 cfu/mL, 24–72 h, no data | (Schug et al. 2022) |
| Staphylococcus aureus | 2 | MHB, 105 cfu/mL, 24–48 h, 36°C | (Koburger et al. 2010) |
| 0.49–0.98 | TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24 h, 37°C | (Dydak et al. 2021) | |
| 2–4 | SCS, 1.5–5×105 cfu/mL, 48 h, 37°C | (Denkel et al. 2022) | |
| 0.9 | MHB, 105 cfu/mL, 24 h, 37°C | (Krasowski et al. 2021) | |
| 0.3–5 | TSB, 108–109 cfu/mL, 24–72 h, no data | (Schug et al. 2022) | |
| 3.125–6.25 | TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24–48 h, 37°C | (Karpiński, et al. 2025a) | |
| Methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) | 1 | MHB, 105 cfu/mL, 24–48 h, 36°C | (Koburger et al. 2010) |
| 1–4 | MHB, 5×105 cfu/mL, 24–48 h, 37°C | (Dittmann et al. 2019) | |
| S. epidermidis | 0.49–7.8 | TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24 h, 37°C | (Dydak et al. 2021) |
| Coagulase-negative staphylococci | 2–4 | SCS, 1.5–5×105 cfu/mL, 48 h, 37°C | (Denkel et al. 2022) |
| Streptococcus pneumoniae | 8–32 | MHB, 105 cfu/mL, 24–48 h, 36°C | (Koburger et al. 2010) |
| S. pyogenes | 3.125–6.25 | TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24–48 h, 37°C | (Karpiński, et al. 2025a) |
| Gram-negative bacteria | |||
| Acinetobacter baumannii | 0.25–3.9 | TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24 h, 37°C | (Dydak et al. 2021) |
| Enterobacter cloacae | 3.9 | TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24 h, 37°C | (Dydak et al. 2021) |
| 6.25 | TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24–48 h, 37°C | (Karpiński, et al. 2025a) | |
| Escherichia coli | 2 | MHB, 105 cfu/mL, 24–48 h, 36°C | (Koburger et al. 2010) |
| 1.95–3.9 | TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24 h, 37°C | (Dydak et al. 2021) | |
| 2–4 | SCS, 1.5–5×105 cfu/mL, 48 h, 37°C | (Denkel et al. 2022) | |
| 1.95–3.9 | MHB or artificial urine, 105–106 cfu/mL, 20 ± 2 h, 37°C | (Loose et al. 2021) | |
| 1–4 | MHB, 106 cfu/mL, 20 ± 2 h, 37°C | (da Silva et al. 2023) | |
| 0.6–20 | TSB, 108–109 cfu/mL, 24–72 h, no data | (Schug et al. 2022) | |
| 3.125–6.25 | TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24–48 h, 37°C | (Karpiński, et al. 2025a) | |
| Haemophilus influenzae | 1 | MHB 105 cfu/mL, 24–48 h, 36°C | (Koburger et al. 2010) |
| Klebsiella spp. | 2–4 | SCS, 1.5–5×105 cfu/mL, 48 h, 37°C | (Denkel et al. 2022) |
| K. pneumoniae | 1.95–7.8 | TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24 h, 37°C | (Dydak et al. 2021) |
| 3.125–6.25 | TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24–48 h, 37°C | (Karpiński, et al. 2025a) | |
| Proteus mirabilis | 1.95–3.9 | MHB or artificial urine, 105–106 cfu/mL, 20 ± 2 h, 37°C | (Loose et al. 2021) |
| 3.125–6.25 | TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24–48 h, 37°C | (Karpiński, et al. 2025a) | |
| Pseudomonas aeruginosa | 2–8 | MHB, 105 cfu/mL, 24–48 h, 36°C | (Koburger et al. 2010) |
| 3.9–15.7 | TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24 h, 37°C | (Dydak et al. 2021) | |
| 8–32 | SCS, 1.5–5×105 cfu/mL, 48 h, 37°C | (Denkel et al. 2022) | |
| 2.25±0.95 | MHB, 105 cfu/mL, 24 h, 37°C | (Krasowski et al. 2021) | |
| 3.9–7.8 | MHB or artificial urine, 105–106 cfu/mL, 20 ± 2 h, 37°C | (Loose et al. 2021) | |
| 3.91–15.63 | TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24 h, 36°C | (Karpiński, et al. 2025b) | |
| 1.25–80 | TSB, 108–109 cfu/mL, 24–72 h, no data | (Schug et al. 2022) | |
| 3.125–12.5 | TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24–48 h, 37°C | (Karpiński, et al. 2025a) | |
| Salmonella enterica | 6.25 | TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24–48 h, 37°C | (Karpiński, et al. 2025a) |
| Shigella flexneri | 6.25–12.5 | TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24–48 h, 37°C | (Karpiński, et al. 2025a) |
| Yersinia enterocolitica | 6.25 | TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24–48 h, 37°C | (Karpiński, et al. 2025a) |
| Fungi | |||
| Ascophera apis | 0.78–3.125 | TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24–48 h, 37°C | (Karpiński, et al. 2025a) |
| Candida albicans | 1 | MHB, 105 cfu/mL, 24–48 h, 36°C | (Koburger et al. 2010) |
| 0.49–0.98 | TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24 h, 37°C | (Dydak et al. 2021) | |
| 0.45 | RPMI with 2% glucose, 105 cfu/mL, 24 h, 37°C | (Krasowski et al. 2021) | |
| 0.5 ± 0.25 and 0.9 ± 0.4 | TSB, 106 cfu/mL, 24 h, 36°C | (Korbecka-Paczkowska and Karpiński 2024) | |
| 1.95–3.91 | Sabouraud broth, 106 cfu/mL, 24 h, 36°C | (Karpiński et al. 2024) | |
| 0.78–1.56 | TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24–48 h, 37°C | (Karpiński, et al. 2025a) | |
| C. auris | 3.125 | TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24–48 h, 37°C | (Karpiński, et al. 2025a) |
| C. glabrata | 0.78–3.125 | TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24–48 h, 37°C | (Karpiński, et al. 2025a) |
| C. tropicalis | 0.78–1.56 | TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24–48 h, 37°C | (Karpiński, et al. 2025a) |
| Cryptococcus neoformans | 3.125 | TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24–48 h, 37°C | (Karpiński, et al. 2025a) |
| Rhodotorula mucilaginosa | 3.125 | TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24–48 h, 37°C | (Karpiński, et al. 2025a) |