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Octenidine Dihydrochloride – Antimicrobial Activity, Adaptation and Clinical Application Cover

Octenidine Dihydrochloride – Antimicrobial Activity, Adaptation and Clinical Application

Advancements of Microbiology
Volume 64 (2025): Issue 3 (September 2025)
By:
Open Access
|Sep 2025

Figures & Tables

Figure 1.

Mode of action of octenidine dihydrochloride. Created using the BioRender.com.
Mode of action of octenidine dihydrochloride. Created using the BioRender.com.

Antibiofilm activity of octenidine dihydrochloride_

MicroorganismTested concentrations (μg/mL)Time of action% of biofilm reductionType of antibiofilm studyReference
E. faecium15.7-31.324 h100mature biofilm reduction(Dydak et al. 2021)
S. epidermidis15.7-12524 h100(Dydak et al. 2021)
S. aureus62.524 h100(Dydak et al. 2021)
~5024 h100(Krasowski et al. 2021)
100024 h~85%(Rembe et al. 2020)
MRSA10003 days80%(Davis et al. 2017)
A. baumannii7.8-25024 h100(Dydak et al. 2021)
E. coli2503 days100biofilm formation inhibition(Loose et al. 2021)
125-50024 h100mature biofilm reduction(Dydak et al. 2021)
E. cloacae250-50024 h100(Dydak et al. 2021)
K. pneumoniae62.5-50024 h100(Dydak et al. 2021)
P. mirabilis25024 h100biofilm formation inhibition(Loose et al. 2021)
P. aeruginosa50024 h100(Loose et al. 2021)
250 to >50024 h100mature biofilm reduction(Dydak et al. 2021)
~18024 h100(Krasowski et al. 2021)
100024 h~100(Rembe et al. 2020)
C. albicans50024 h47 ± 11(Korbecka-Paczkowska and Karpiński 2024)
100024 h51 ± 13(Korbecka-Paczkowska and Karpiński 2024)
15.7-31.324 h100(Dydak et al. 2021)
~6024 h100(Krasowski et al. 2021)

Minimal inhibitory concentrations (MIC) of octenidine against bacteria and fungi using microdilution method_

MicroorganismsRange of MICs (μg/mL)Methodological remarks (medium type, colony counts, incubation time, and temperature)References
Gram-positive bacteria
Clostridium perfringens1MHB, 105 cfu/mL, 24-48 h, 36°C(Koburger et al. 2010)
Enterococcus faecalis4MHB, 105 cfu/mL, 24-48 h, 36°C(Koburger et al. 2010)
3.125-6.25TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24-48 h, 37°C(Karpiński, et al. 2025a)
E. faecium0.49-1.95TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24 h, 37°C(Dydak et al. 2021)
3.125-6.25TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24-48 h, 37°C(Karpiński, et al. 2025a)
E. hirae0.6-10TSB, 108-109 cfu/mL, 24-72 h, no data(Schug et al. 2022)
Staphylococcus aureus2MHB, 105 cfu/mL, 24-48 h, 36°C(Koburger et al. 2010)
0.49-0.98TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24 h, 37°C(Dydak et al. 2021)
2-4SCS, 1.5-5×105cfu/mL, 48 h, 37°C(Denkel et al. 2022)
0.9MHB, 105 cfu/mL, 24 h, 37°C(Krasowski et al. 2021)
0.3-5TSB, 108-109 cfu/mL, 24-72 h, no data(Schug et al. 2022)
3.125-6.25TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24-48 h, 37°C(Karpiński, et al. 2025a)
Methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA)1MHB, 105 cfu/mL, 24-48 h, 36°C(Koburger et al. 2010)
1-4MHB, 5×105 cfu/mL, 24-48 h, 37°C(Dittmann et al. 2019)
S. epidermidis0.49-7.8TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24 h, 37°C(Dydak et al. 2021)
Coagulase-negative staphylococci2-4SCS, 1.5-5×105cfu/mL, 48 h, 37°C(Denkel et al. 2022)
Streptococcus pneumoniae8-32MHB, 105 cfu/mL, 24-48 h, 36°C(Koburger et al. 2010)
S. pyogenes3.125-6.25TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24-48 h, 37°C(Karpiński, et al. 2025a)
Gram-negative bacteria
Acinetobacter baumannii0.25-3.9TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24 h, 37°C(Dydak et al. 2021)
Enterobacter cloacae3.9TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24 h, 37°C(Dydak et al. 2021)
6.25TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24-48 h, 37°C(Karpiński, et al. 2025a)
Escherichia coli2MHB, 105 cfu/mL, 24-48 h, 36°C(Koburger et al. 2010)
1.95-3.9TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24 h, 37°C(Dydak et al. 2021)
2-4SCS, 1.5-5×105cfu/mL, 48 h, 37°C(Denkel et al. 2022)
1.95-3.9MHB or artificial urine, 105-106 cfu/mL, 20 ± 2 h, 37°C(Loose et al. 2021)
1-4MHB, 106 cfu/mL, 20 ± 2 h, 37°C(da Silva et al. 2023)
0.6-20TSB, 108-109 cfu/mL, 24-72 h, no data(Schug et al. 2022)
3.125-6.25TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24-48 h, 37°C(Karpiński, et al. 2025a)
Haemophilus influenzae1MHB 105 cfu/mL, 24-48 h, 36°C(Koburger et al. 2010)
Klebsiella spp.2-4SCS, 1.5-5×105cfu/mL, 48 h, 37°C(Denkel et al. 2022)
K. pneumoniae1.95-7.8TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24 h, 37°C(Dydak et al. 2021)
3.125-6.25TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24-48 h, 37°C(Karpiński, et al. 2025a)
Proteus mirabilis1.95-3.9MHB or artificial urine, 105-106 cfu/mL, 20 ± 2 h, 37°C(Loose et al. 2021)
3.125-6.25TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24-48 h, 37°C(Karpiński, et al. 2025a)
Pseudomonas aeruginosa2-8MHB, 105 cfu/mL, 24-48 h, 36°C(Koburger et al. 2010)
3.9-15.7TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24 h, 37°C(Dydak et al. 2021)
8-32SCS, 1.5-5×105cfu/mL, 48 h, 37°C(Denkel et al. 2022)
2.25±0.95MHB, 105 cfu/mL, 24 h, 37°C(Krasowski et al. 2021)
3.9-7.8MHB or artificial urine, 105-106 cfu/mL, 20 ± 2 h, 37°C(Loose et al. 2021)
3.91-15.63TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24 h, 36°C(Karpiński, et al. 2025b)
1.25-80TSB, 108-109 cfu/mL, 24-72 h, no data(Schug et al. 2022)
3.125-12.5TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24-48 h, 37°C(Karpiński, et al. 2025a)
Salmonella enterica6.25TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24-48 h, 37°C(Karpiński, et al. 2025a)
Shigella flexneri6.25-12.5TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24-48 h, 37°C(Karpiński, et al. 2025a)
Yersinia enterocolitica6.25TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24-48 h, 37°C(Karpiński, et al. 2025a)
Fungi
Ascophera apis0.78-3.125TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24-48 h, 37°C(Karpiński, et al. 2025a)
Candida albicans1MHB, 105 cfu/mL, 24-48 h, 36°C(Koburger et al. 2010)
0.49-0.98TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24 h, 37°C(Dydak et al. 2021)
0.45RPMI with 2% glucose, 105 cfu/mL, 24 h, 37°C(Krasowski et al. 2021)
0.5 ± 0.25 and 0.9 ± 0.4TSB, 106 cfu/mL, 24 h, 36°C(Korbecka-Paczkowska and Karpiński 2024)
1.95-3.91Sabouraud broth, 106 cfu/mL, 24 h, 36°C(Karpiński et al. 2024)
0.78-1.56TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24-48 h, 37°C(Karpiński, et al. 2025a)
C. auris3.125TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24-48 h, 37°C(Karpiński, et al. 2025a)
C. glabrata0.78-3.125TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24-48 h, 37°C(Karpiński, et al. 2025a)
C. tropicalis0.78-1.56TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24-48 h, 37°C(Karpiński, et al. 2025a)
Cryptococcus neoformans3.125TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24-48 h, 37°C(Karpiński, et al. 2025a)
Rhodotorula mucilaginosa3.125TSB, 105 cfu/mL, 24-48 h, 37°C(Karpiński, et al. 2025a)

Results of studies on the development of microorganism adaptation to OCT_

MicroorganismInitial MIC (before adaptation) (μg/mL)MIC after adaptation (μg/mL)Fold increase in adaptation relative to initial MICReferenceKarpinski Adaptation Index (KAI)Risk of clinical resistance to OCT
S. aureus24.5× 2.25(Karpiński 2024)0.009Very low
S. epidermidis0.20.49× 2.45(Nicolae Dopcea et al. 2020)0.00098Very low
Citrobacter spp.22× 1(Garratt et al. 2021)0.004Very low
Enterobacter spp.44-8× 1-2(Garratt et al. 2021)0.008-0.016Very low
P. mirabilis2128× 64(Pelling et al. 2024)0.256Moderate
816× 2(Tagliaferri et al. 2024)0.032Very low
P. aeruginosa7.8–15.650-75× 3.2–12.8(Karpiński, et al. 2025b)0.12Low
432-64× 8-16(Garratt et al. 2021)0.064-0.128Very low/Low
32256× 8(Tagliaferri et al. 2024)0.512Moderate
4-832-128× 4-32(Shepherd et al. 2018)0.064-0.256Very low/Moderate
C. albicans1.95-3.97.5-10× 1.9-5.1(Karpiński et al. 2024)0.019Very low
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/am-2025-0014 | Journal eISSN: 2545-3149 | Journal ISSN: 0079-4252
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Language: English, Polish
Page range: 182 - 191
Submitted on: Mar 7, 2025
Accepted on: Jul 23, 2025
Published on: Sep 30, 2025
Published by: Polish Society of Microbiologists
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services
Publication frequency: 4 times per year
Keywords:
anti-infective agents,
antimicrobial stewardship,
biofilm,
nosocomial infection,
wound infection,
wound healing
Related subjects:
Life sciences,
Microbiology and virology

© 2025 Tomasz M. Karpiński, Marzena Korbecka-Paczkowska, Agnieszka Zeidler, Wojciech Grzywna, published by Polish Society of Microbiologists
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License.

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