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Chemotherapy Resistance Status of Common Human Pathogenic Protozoa Cover

Chemotherapy Resistance Status of Common Human Pathogenic Protozoa

Advancements of Microbiology
Volume 64 (2025): Issue 1 (March 2025)
By:   
Open Access
|May 2025
Figures & tables

Figures & Tables

Fig. 1.

The link between humans and six parasitic genera. Plasmodium, Leishmania, and Trypanosoma are transferred to humans mainly through the bite of an infected vector, while Toxoplasma, Giardia, and Entamoeba are transmitted via ingestion.

Table I.

Plasmodium species treatment and possible resistance proteins summary

Plasmodium
Uncomplicated malaria by CQS P. vivax, P. ovale, P. malariae, P. knowlesi, and P. falciparum
CQ phosphate; is also the drug of choice for pregnant women
Uncomplicated malaria by CQR P. falciparum, P. vivax, and P. ovale
An ACT combination such as ARM-LF; is also the drug of choice for pregnant women
Anti-relapse treatment P. vivax and P. ovale
PRQ phosphate or TFQ; Anti-relapse is risky during pregnancy
Complicated malaria regardless of the species or drug susceptibility
Administer intravenous ARN
Possible proteins involved in resistance
P. vivax: PvMDRI (CQ, ARN, and MQ), PvDFHR-TS, and PvDHPS (SP)
P. falciparum: PfCRT (CQ, PPQ, ADQ), PfMDRI (CQ, QN, ART, and MQ), PfMRPI (CQ and QN), PfK13 (ART), Pfcytb (AQ), Pfnhe-1 (QN), PfDHPS, and PfDHFR-TS (SP)
Available human vaccine
RTS,S/AS01 (Mosquirix™) by GlaxoSmithKline Biologicals

[i] Sources: Fidock et al. 2000; Reed et al. 2000; Tjitra et al. 2002; Nsobya et al. 2007; O’Neill et al. 2010; Andriantsoanirina et al. 2013; Schousboe et al. 2015; Pacheco et al. 2020; Wicht et al. 2020; Gil and Fançony 2021; CDC 2024a; Hammershaimb and Berry 2024

Table II.

Leishmania treatment and possible resistance proteins summary

Leishmania
Compounds usually used for treatment
Sbv, AMB, PMD, FLZ or MT
Possible proteins involved in resistance

  • - Sbv: gene products of ABCI4, ABCG2, MRP1 and AQP1

  • - MT: gene products of LdMT gene and LdRos, and ABCB4, ABCG4, and ABCG6

  • - AMB: gene products of CYP51, SC5D, and SMT

Available human vaccine
No human vaccine is available

[i] Sources: Herwaldt and Berman 1992; Mukherjee et al. 2007; Pérez-Victoria et al. 2011; Ponte-Sucre et al. 2017; Srivastava et al. 2017; Pountain et al. 2019; Potvin et al. 2020

Table III.

Toxoplasma treatment and possible resistance proteins summary

Toxoplasma
Commonly used compounds for treatment

  • - If fetal illness was negative: SPI (in some cases AQ)

  • - If fetal illness was positive: PYR + SDZ + FA

Proteins involved in resistance
AQ: Toxoplasma cyt-bc1
Available human vaccine
No human vaccine is available

[i] Sources: Bogacz 1954; McFadden et al. 2000; Robert-Gangneux et al. 2011; Prusa et al. 2015; SA Maternal & Neonatal Clinical Network 2015; Alday et al. 2017; Lapinskas and Ben-Harari 2019

Table IV.

African Trypanosoma treatment and possible resistance proteins summary

African Trypanosoma
Commonly used compounds for treatment

  • T.b.g: 1st stage: PMD or FXZ

    2nd stage: NECT or FXZ

  • T.b.r 1st stage: SUR

  • 2nd stage: Melb

Possible proteins involved in resistance
PMD and Melb: TbAT1 and TbAQP2
Available human vaccine
No human vaccine is available

[i] Sources: Bouteille et al. 2003; Nok 2003; Munday et al. 2015; Zoltner et al. 2020; CDC 2024b

Table V.

Giardia treatment and possible resistance proteins summary

Giardia
Commonly used compounds for treatment
MTZ, ALB orTNZ
Possible proteins involved in resistance
ALB: ROD domain of the β-tubulin and ABC-C1
Available human vaccine
No human vaccine is available

[i] Sources: Argüello-García et al. 2015; Ángeles-Arvizu et al. 2021; Lagunas-Rangel et al. 2021; CDC 2024c

Table VI.

Entamoeba treatment and possible resistance proteins summary

Entamoeba
Commonly used compounds for treatment
MTZ or TNZ
Proteins involved in resistance
No clear evidence yet
Available human vaccine
No human vaccine is available

[i] Sources: Sawyer et al. 1976; CDC 2019

DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/am-2025-0002 | Journal eISSN: 2545-3149 | Journal ISSN: 0079-4252
Journal RSS Feed
Language: English, Polish
Page range: 24 - 38
Submitted on: Oct 5, 2024
Accepted on: Feb 12, 2025
Published on: May 8, 2025
Published by: Polish Society of Microbiologists
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services
Publication frequency: 4 issues per year
Keywords:
bloodborne parasites,
foodborne parasites,
parasite drug resistance,
parasite treatment,
protozoa
Related subjects:
Life sciences,
Microbiology and virology

© 2025 Fadi M. Baakdah, published by Polish Society of Microbiologists
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License.

Volume 64 (2025): Issue 1 (March 2025)
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