Advancements of Microbiology Feed

Probiotics in Atopic Dermatitis: Does Gut Microbiome Modulation Enhance Skin Condition?

Tue, 13 Oct 2026 00:00:00 GMT

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a chronic condition driven by epidermal barrier disruption and multiphasic immune dysregulation involving type 2, Th1, Th17, and Th22 pathways. Beyond local cutaneous pathology, systemic interactions mediated by the bidirectional gut–skin axis play an integral role, in which intestinal dysbiosis, depletion of short-chain fatty acid–producing taxa, and compromised epithelial integrity exacerbate cutaneous symptoms. This review evaluates the therapeutic potential and mechanistic pathways of targeted probiotic administration to restore microenvironmental equilibrium and alleviate cutaneous pathology. The underlying biological mechanisms-encompassing epithelial junction reinforcement, short-chain fatty acid biosynthesis, and cytokine rebalancing-are examined alongside current clinical evidence. Therapeutic interventions utilizing selected bacterial strains have been shown to significantly reduce SCORAD indices, indicating that probiotic supplementation represents a viable, safe adjunctive strategy for managing disease severity in both pediatric and adult populations

Forgotten Vaccine Creators and Epidemic Conquerors: Rudolf Weigl and Waldemar Haffkine

Tue, 13 Oct 2026 00:00:00 GMT

Vaccination has led to the eradication or control of numerous infectious diseases, including devastating epidemics such as smallpox, cholera, typhus, and plague. This global success is commonly attributed to pioneering microbiologists such as Louis Pasteur, Edward Jenner, and Robert Koch. However, the equally important contributions of Rudolf Weigl, who developed the first effective typhus vaccine, and Waldemar Haffkine, who created the first cholera and plague vaccines, are not widely recognized. This article revisits their groundbreaking work, which saved millions of lives worldwide, and emphasizes the enduring importance of vaccination amid resurgent anti-vaccine movements that threaten global public health.

Longitudinal Phenotypic and Antimicrobial Resistance Evolution of Mycobacterium Abscessus Subsp. Abscessus During Chronic Pulmonary Infection in a Patient with Cystic fibrosis

Tue, 13 Oct 2026 00:00:00 GMT

BackgroundMycobacterium abscessus infection represents one of the most challenging non-tuberculous mycobacterial infections in patients with cystic fibrosis (CF), owing to intrinsic antimicrobial resistance, prolonged persistence within the respiratory tract, and poor therapeutic outcomes. Comprehensive microbiological characterization may support diagnosis, treatment selection, and long-term clinical management.MethodsFour sequential M. abscessus subsp. abscessus isolates recovered from bronchoalveolar lavage samples collected between 2017 and 2025 from a cystic fibrosis patient were analyzed. Species and subspecies identification, together with detection of resistance-associated determinants, were performed using MALDI-TOF MS and GenoType NTM-DR assays. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was conducted by broth microdilution according to CLSI recommendations. Biofilm-forming capacity was evaluated using the crystal violet assay. Phenotypic relatedness of sequential isolates was assessed by Fourier-transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy using the IR Biotyper platform.ResultsRepeated respiratory isolation of M. abscessus together with progressive radiological abnormalities and impaired lung function supported the diagnosis of chronic pulmonary disease. All analyzed isolates were identified as M. abscessus subsp. abscessus. Molecular analysis identified a functional erm(41) determinant consistent with inducible macrolide resistance. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing showed sustained susceptibility to linezolid and temporal changes in susceptibility to amikacin and clarithromycin, with resistance to cefoxitin, moxifloxacin, ciprofloxacin, doxycycline, and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. The isolates demonstrated biofilm-forming ability. FT-IR analysis demonstrated high similarity of spectral profiles among sequential isolates collected during the follow-up periodConclusionsChronic M. abscessus infection in this patient was characterized by repeated recovery of isolates with highly similar FT-IR spectral profiles over eight years, along with temporal changes in antimicrobial resistance and biofilm-forming capacity. While these findings are consistent with persistence of a phenotypically related population, confirmation of clonality and within-host microevolution would require whole-genome sequencing.

Zakażenia Związane Z Opieką Zdrowotną U Pacjentów Oparzonych: OD Patogenezy DO Zintegrowanej Kontroli Zakażeń

Tue, 13 Oct 2026 00:00:00 GMT

Burn injuries remain a significant public health problem, while healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) are a major cause of morbidity and mortality among patients who survive the early phase of burn injury. This patient population is particularly susceptible due to persistent immunosuppression, loss of the skin barrier, and the need for invasive medical procedures throughout hospitalization. In the early phase of burn injury, Gram-positive pathogens predominate, including Staphylococcus aureus with various resistance phenotypes, whereas with increasing length of hospital stay, nosocomial Gram-negative pathogens, such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Acinetobacter baumannii, and Klebsiella pneumoniae, account for an increasing proportion of infections. The increasing frequency of multidrug-resistant organisms (MDROs), including MDR (multidrug-resistant), XDR (extensively drug-resistant), and PDR (pandrug-resistant) strains, significantly limits available therapeutic options. An additional concern is fungal infections, mainly caused by Candida spp. and Aspergillus spp., which are associated with high mortality rates ranging from 21% to 42%. Bloodstream infections caused by MDROs are associated with 30-day mortality exceeding 50%, making them one of the most severe complications in this patient population. Available data indicate that the most effective preventive strategies are multifaceted and include hospital environmental control, contact precautions, standardized wound care and treatment, and effective HAI surveillance, including targeted surveillance and priority-directed surveillance, which can reduce HAI incidence by 47–85%. Systemic prophylactic antibiotic therapy does not reduce infection incidence, and its unjustified, uncontrolled use promotes the selection of MDRO strains. An antimicrobial stewardship program (ASP), based on local surveillance of antimicrobial resistance among HAI pathogens and systematic de-escalation, remains the recommended organizational standard in burn units. This review highlights major gaps in standardizing microbiological diagnostics and HAI control, emphasizing the need for prospective multicenter studies and an integrated approach to burn patient care.

Biosensors as Powerful Tools for Campylobacter Spp. Detection

Tue, 13 Oct 2026 00:00:00 GMT

Campylobacter spp. of the Campylobacteriaceae family are spiral-shaped, Gram-negative, zoonotic pathogens. These microaerophilic, thermophilic bacteria flourish at temperatures of 37–42 °C. Campylobacter spp. are known pathogens of animals (livestock, wild, and companion animals) and humans. They are also a major foodborne pathogen. Traditional culture-based detection of Campylobacter spp. is labor-intensive, requires 5 to 7 days for confirmation, and is often compromised by overgrowth of competing bacteria. While molecular methods are sensitive, they require specialized instruments and well-trained personnel, limiting their routine use for rapid on-site detection. Analytical biosensors have emerged as powerful tools for the real-time diagnosis of infectious diseases. Biosensors such as mass-sensitive, amperometric, total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF), impedimetric, surface-plasmon resonance (SPR), conductometric, fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET), and diffractive optics have been developed for bacterial identification. Depending on the sensing platform, reported limits of detection range from a single bacterial cell per sample to about 104 CFU/ml, with several biosensors providing results within minutes to a few hours, highlighting their potential for rapid food safety monitoring and clinical diagnosis. This review elaborates on various types of biosensors for the diagnosis of Campylobacter spp. and related species.

Emerging Zoonotic Viral Diseases: Urgent Need for One Health Perspective

Tue, 13 Oct 2026 00:00:00 GMT

Zoonotic diseases are infectious diseases that are naturally transmitted between vertebrate animals and humans, either directly or indirectly. It has been estimated that over 60% of human pathogens originate in animals. These include bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, parasites, and other pathogens. Newly emerging zoonotic viral diseases can greatly complicate the public health situation, primarily because such pathogens typically have high lethality, can cause large-scale outbreaks, and severely affect the socioeconomic conditions of societies. At the same time, the frequency of zoonotic outbreaks has been increasing at an alarming rate in recent decades, largely as a result of human actions such as increasing agricultural productivity, clearing forests, animal trade, and climate change. Cases such as the H1N1 influenza pandemic, Nipah virus infection, monkeypox, Ebola, and SARS-CoV-2 have clearly demonstrated the significant epidemic potential of zoonotic infections in human populations.Because recent experiences with emerging zoonotic diseases have been challenging, it is imperative that the One Health concept be strongly supported through effective implementation. This concept helps connect the human-animal-plant-environment interface, which is vitally important for preventing, detecting, and responding to health threats. It also ensures that development remains sustainable. This review article discusses the occurrence, distribution, and prophylaxis of emerging zoonotic diseases by analyzing the causative agent, its transmission pathways, and laboratory diagnosis. The major focus is on the prophylaxis of major zoonotic diseases. In most active regions, such as Southeast Asia, where diverse habitats and extensive human-animal interactions are conducive to zoonotic spillovers, less emphasis is placed on the community health aspect of emergent zoonotic diseases. India can, thus, through coordinated actions, not only improve its readiness and response to zoonotic viral infections but also promote community and environmental health.

Detection of Virulence Genes and ABC Genotypes in Candida Albicans Isolates from Candidemia Patients

Tue, 28 Jul 2026 00:00:00 GMT

Candidemia is the most common form of invasive fungal infection, and is associated with high mortality rates particularly in intensive care patients. In this study, 50 C. albicans strains isolated from blood samples were genotyped by 25S intron analysis, and the presence of virulence genes was investigated by PCR. Genotyping revealed that 28 isolates (56%) were genotype A, 14 (28%) genotype B, and eight (16%) genotype C. The SAP1 gene was detected in 96% of isolates, SAP2 and SAP4 in 98%, ALS1 and HWP1 in 92%, and PLB1 in 94%. A comprehensive understanding of Candida virulence factors, particularly in C. albicans which is the most prevalent Candida species acting as both a commensal organism and an opportunistic pathogen, is essential for improving diagnostic methods, and guiding the design of novel antifungal agents targeting virulence mechanisms.

Pathogenic Bacteria Variation in Hydroelectric Reservoirs: Case of Kossou, Taabo and Faé in Côte D'ivoire

Tue, 28 Jul 2026 00:00:00 GMT

Recent studies have shown that the Taabo, Kossou, and Faé reservoirs are contaminated by faecal pollutants, which could pose health risks to users due to a potentially high abundance of pathogenic bacteria. Accordingly, a monitoring study was planned to assess variation in pathogen abundance, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) and Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus), in these reservoirs. Water sampling was conducted between February and October of the same year along a linear transect in each reservoir. Pathogenic bacteria were analyzed using culture and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) methods. The primer pairs PA-SS-F/PA-SS-R were used for P. aeruginosa, and 16S rRNA-F/16S rRNA-R were used for S. aureus. Overall, the median concentrations of P. aeruginosa and S. aureus ranged from 0.97 and 2.57 Log CFU/100 mL. The highest concentrations of these bacteria were generally recorded during the rainy periods in June, July, September, and October. Spatially, the highest concentrations were found in the shore areas of the different reservoirs. The results indicated weak correlations between the concentrations of these pathogenic bacteria. To preserve the integrity of these hydroelectric reservoirs, it is advisable to establish safety zones around them and to treat wastewater prior to discharge.

Trypsin-Activated Parasporal Proteins from Native Bacillus thuringiensis Isolates Reduce Staphylococcus aureus Virulence and Biofilm Formation In vitro

Tue, 28 Jul 2026 00:00:00 GMT

Antibiotics are pivotal for treating Staphylococcus aureus infections, but overuse has led to multidrug-resistant (MDR) strains, necessitating alternative strategies. Targeting virulence factors, rather than bacterial survival, offers a promising approach to combat resistance. This study evaluated the in vitro effects of native, non-insecticidal Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) parasporal crystal proteins (PCPs), in protoxin (PT) and trypsin-activated (AT) forms, on S. aureus virulence gene expression and biofilm formation. Fourteen Bt PCPs were isolated and prepared as PT and AT forms. Their impact was assessed using LacZ promoter fusion assays for hla (alpha-hemolysin), spa (protein A), and RNAIII (a key virulence regulator), supplemented by quantitative β-galactosidase assays. Biofilm formation was quantified and normalized to planktonic growth (Normalized Biofilm Index, NBI) to distinguish specific antibiofilm activity from growth inhibition. AT-PCPs from Bt strains M11, M78, M91, M154t1, and A11 significantly downregulated hla, spa, and RNAIII expression (log2 fold changes up to −4.88, p < 0.001) and reduced biofilm formation (NBI reduction up to 57%, p < 0.001). AT proteins exhibited no hemolytic activity and had MIC values >100 μg/mL, confirming antivirulence effects at sub-inhibitory concentrations. PCR screening revealed the absence of cyt1 genes in four of five active isolates, supporting Cry-mediated targeting. These in vitro findings suggest that trypsin-activated PCPs can disrupt critical virulence pathways in S. aureus. Trypsin-activated Bt PCPs attenuate virulence and biofilm formation in S. aureus in vitro, highlighting their potential as leads for novel antivirulence strategies. These proteins show potential as candidates for standalone or adjuvant strategies alongside conventional antibiotics in the fight against MDR infections, pending further validation. Further research is needed to elucidate their mechanisms, assess their efficacy in vivo, and evaluate enzymatic activation by host-derived proteases. These in vitro results highlight the potential of Bt-derived PCPs as novel virulence-targeting leads, though further research is needed to identify the active component(s), elucidate mechanisms, and evaluate efficacy in vivo.

Antimicrobial Resistance in Klebsiella pneumoniae: Mechanisms, Epidemiology, and Emerging Threats

Tue, 28 Jul 2026 00:00:00 GMT

Currently, one of the most serious threats to public health is the rapid spread of multidrug–resistant (MDR) and highly virulent Klebsiella pneumoniae (hvKp). In these strains, various antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) are frequently detected, including several novel ones first identified in this bacterial species, such as carbapenemases of the KPC, NDM–1, and OXA–48 types. The widespread prevalence of environmental ARGs, which can be transferred between microbiota, particularly among clinical pathogens and human commensals, has significantly contributed to the emergence of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in K. pneumoniae. Resistance is caused by mechanisms such as drug inactivation, increased efflux, or altered binding to target sites. Moreover, this resistance is further enhanced by the production of various beta-lactamases, mainly extended–spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBLs), or by biofilm formation. Particularly concerning in K. pneumoniae, the main species representing the carbapenemase–producing Enterobacterales (CPE) group, is the emergence of plasmid–mediated resistance to carbapenems and polymyxins, which are considered “last–resort drugs” for treating infections caused by these pathogenic microorganisms. The growing resistance of K. pneumoniae to antibiotics and other antimicrobial agents remains one of the most important problems in epidemiological surveillance, microbiological diagnostics, and the global treatment of infections. The high mortality rate among infected patients and the difficulty in treating infections caused by MDR K. pneumoniae have led to this bacterium being classified as one of the most common and dangerous human pathogens in both Polish and global healthcare. This article characterizes the factors determining antibiotic resistance in K. pneumoniae, both in terms of biochemical mechanisms and molecular features. In addition, the current epidemiological situation regarding the spread of invasive, resistant K. pneumoniae isolates in Europe and Poland is described, and treatment regimens for infections caused by these high–alert pathogens are presented.

Parasporal δ-Endotoxins of Bacillus Thuringiensis: Potentials and Challenges as a New Frontier in the Fight Against Cancer

Tue, 31 Mar 2026 00:00:00 GMT

Parasporins (PSs), also known as delta endotoxins or Mammalian Pore-forming Proteins (Mpp), are non-hemolytic, non-insecticidal proteins secreted by Bacillus thuringiensis. They exhibit selective anticancer activities against various human tumor cell lines by recognizing and binding to specific cell membrane receptors. Currently, six PS families (PS1–PS6) have been identified in at least 11 B. thuringiensis strains. While distinct mechanisms have been proposed for some families (e.g., pore-formation by PS2, apoptosis induction by PS1), the precise molecular pathways for all families are not yet fully elucidated, and mechanistic overlap may exist. Through the exploration of established mechanisms-of-action (MOA) involving pore-forming proteins, significant alterations have been revealed, specifically in the permeability of the plasma membrane of their target cells, potentially culminating in cell death. The in vivo antitumor activity of PS proteins in animal models, such as mice and rats, remains relatively unexplored. This review aims to summarize the MOA of PS protein families produced by B. thuringiensis, evaluate research gaps in therapeutic development, in vivo efficacy, and the challenges of targeted delivery. Future perspectives and directions for harnessing these proteins as potential natural alternatives for cancer treatment are also highlighted.

MALDI-TOF MS-Based Detection of Antimicrobial Resistance: Biomarkers, Assays and Clinical Applications – A Critical Review

Tue, 31 Mar 2026 00:00:00 GMT

The MALDI-TOF MS technique is now playing a major role in improving microbial diagnostics by enabling rapid and accurate identification of pathogens from minimal amounts of biological material. In recent years, its application has been extended to the detection of antimicrobial resistance trough diverse approaches (e.g., MALDIxin test, MBT-ASTRA, MBT-RESIST, FLAT or DOT-MGA). These strategies allow phenotypic assessment of resistance by measuring antibiotic degradation, identifying resistance-associated spectral peaks, or monitoring bacterial growth in the presence of antimicrobials, thereby providing clinically relevant results. This review critically discusses current evidence on MALDI-TOF MS-based detection of resistance to key antibiotic classes in major pathogens. It also highlights a typical performance metrics, antibiotic- and species-dependent variability, and focuses on remaining gaps in coverage of important resistance mechanism.

Pilot Study of the Microbiological Diversity of the Urinary Tract of Healthy Young Men in Poland

Tue, 31 Mar 2026 00:00:00 GMT

The urinary tract microbiota (urobiota) in healthy individuals remains understudied, particularly in men. Methods: Expanded quantitative urine cultures were performed on 40 asymptomatic, presumably healthy males (18–40 years). Results: 88% of samples showed bacterial growth, predominated by Firmicutes (Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, Corynebacterium). Sexual behavior influenced diversity. Conclusions: The male urinary tract harbors a complex microbiota, challenging the “sterile urine” paradigm.

Microbial Hazards in Post-Flood Soils – An Overview

Tue, 31 Mar 2026 00:00:00 GMT

Becoming increasingly common across Poland and Europe. However, to date, microbiological studies have primarily focused on water intakes and the presence of indicator bacteria (i.e., fecal bacteria) in flood sediments. Data on soil microbial loads are lacking. This short review synthesizes the available evidence on pathogen detection in soils after flooding and identifies gaps. Some researchers have reported a high diversity of bacterial, viral, and protozoan pathogens in river water and have shown that selected bacteria, such as Escherichia coli or Salmonella spp., may persist in post-flood soils for up to 44 days. The lack of systematic soil-focused research limits accurate risk assessment and may pose a significant threat to public health and food safety. Research priorities and mitigation strategies relevant to climate change–driven flood risk are proposed.

The Role of Sialidases in the Development of Bacterial Vaginosis and their Use as Potential Markers in the Diagnosis of Vaginal Infections

Tue, 31 Mar 2026 00:00:00 GMT

Bacterial vaginosis (BV) is an inflammatory condition of the vagina with a polyetiological origin, most commonly associated with an overgrowth of anaerobic bacteria such as Gardnerella vaginalis or Prevotella spp. Pathogens compromise the protective barrier of the vagina through multiple mechanisms. Sialidases, key virulence factors of BV pathogens, desialylate vaginal glycans, altering their structure and function. Point-of-care tests based on sialidase activity are available for diagnostics. This work reviews the role of sialidases in BV pathophysiology, focusing on their effects on mucosal integrity and biofilm formation, as well as their potential diagnostic and therapeutic applications.

A Modern Approach to Combating HPV: Integrating Molecular Diagnostics, Population-Based Prevention, and Vaccination Strategies

Wed, 31 Dec 2025 00:00:00 GMT

Human papillomavirus (HPV) can cause asymptomatic infections, making it part of the human microbiota. Some HPV types cause benign proliferative lesions, such as warts or condylomas, while highly oncogenic types, in the context of chronic infection, can induce lesions that may progress to cancer. The article presents current knowledge on HPV biology, carcinogenesis, and risk factors modulated by co-infections with other viruses or bacteria. The paper also reviews contemporary diagnostic strategies, ranging from cytology (conventional and LBC) and DNA/mRNA (E6/E7) tests to highly sensitive NAAT and sequencing methods. Prevention through available vaccination programs is discussed. From a public health perspective, the importance of adolescent vaccination programs and screening tests, which effectively reduce the incidence of infection and mortality associated with HPV-related cancer, is emphasized.

Clinical Relevance of Psychrobacter Sanguinis: Occurrence and Characterization as an Emerging Pathogen in Patients with Sepsis and Pneumonia

Wed, 24 Dec 2025 00:00:00 GMT

IntroductionPsychrobacter sanguinis is a rarely reported Gram-negative organism, usually linked to cold environments, but it is increasingly being recognized as an opportunistic pathogen.Materials and methodsTwo blood culture isolates from hospitalized patients in Limanowa, Poland, were identified using MALDI-TOF MS and confirmed with 16S rRNA sequencing. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was conducted via the gradient diffusion method.ResultsBoth P. sanguinis strains showed low MICs for fluoroquinolones, extended-spectrum cephalosporins, and carbapenems, suggesting possible treatment options.ConclusionThese cases highlight the growing clinical importance of P. sanguinis. Reliable molecular identification and systematic research are necessary to understand its pathogenic potential, resistance determinants, and epidemiological impact.

Multidrug-Resistant and Highly Virulent Strains of Burkholderia Cepacia Complex – Phage Therapy as a Potential Treatment Option for Infections

Wed, 24 Dec 2025 00:00:00 GMT

The Burkholderia cepacia complex (Bcc) consists of multiple opportunistic pathogens capable of causing serious infections, especially in individuals with cystic fibrosis (CF). Some patients may develop “cepacia syndrome,” a rapidly worsening and often deadly complication. Treatment is difficult because Bcc naturally resists many antibiotic classes and can form biofilms, which help it persist and shield bacteria from the immune system. These issues have made traditional antibiotic treatments mostly ineffective, highlighting the urgent need for alternative solutions.Phage therapy has shown promise as a potential strategy, but its use against Bcc remains limited. Isolating strictly lytic phages is challenging because most available Burkholderia phages are temperate and have narrow host ranges. So far, only a few phages with activity against clinically relevant isolates have been identified. Evidence from compassionate use cases indicates that phage therapy can be safe and well-tolerated, but solid clinical data are still missing. Important gaps in knowledge include the limited availability of phages, the need for standardized protocols, and the optimization of delivery methods, such as aerosolization for lung infections. Solving these issues will be crucial for making phage therapy a practical treatment option for multidrug-resistant Bcc infections.

Stimulatory Properties of Selected Nanomaterials to Bacteria

Wed, 24 Dec 2025 00:00:00 GMT

The antibacterial properties of nanomaterials are well-known and have been extensively studied. On the other hand, bacterial responses to these structures are largely unknown. Notably, defense mechanisms that stimulate physiological features are frequently omitted. Studies on these effects indicate that nanomaterials may stimulate the production of primary and secondary metabolites. The stimulation effects range from cell agglomeration to the secretion of pigments. Contact with nanostructures changes the expression of genes responsible for responding to reactive oxygen species, efflux pumps, and virulence factors. These findings can be potentially used in biotechnology and bioprocess engineering, using nanostructures as stimulants for the biological production of valuable metabolites. On the other hand, the potential stimulation of virulence factors or the risk associated with increased transfer of antibiotic resistance may limit the use of nanomaterials in medical devices that have direct contact with patients. In that manner, more transcriptomic and metabolomic studies are necessary to fully assess the stimulative potential of nanomaterials in biotechnology and medicine.

Modular Virus-Like Particles: Building Nanoscale Platforms for Multiple Applications

Wed, 24 Dec 2025 00:00:00 GMT

Virus-like particles (VLPs) are multiprotein structures that mimic the conformation of infectious virus particles and are therefore potent inducers of immune responses in mammals. Because they are non-infectious and non-replicative, VLPs are attractive options for developing safer vaccines. Modular VLPs are composed of proteins that display universal attachment sites, allowing further functionalization with antigens of interest. These systems are especially useful for creating multivalent vaccines, quickly adaptable vaccines in pandemic scenarios, or vaccines targeting challenging pathogens where traditional methods have failed. Besides vaccines, modular VLPs are also being studied as carriers for targeted cell delivery and as protective shells for fragile biological cargo. In this review, I discuss current strategies for designing modular VLPs, focusing on the types of anchoring sites and attachment techniques used.