References
- 1.
World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA). World Anti-Doping Code [displayed 17 January 2023]. Available at
https://www.wada-ama.org/sites/default/files/resources/files/2021_wada_code.pdf World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) World Anti-Doping Code [displayed 17 January 2023] Available athttps://www.wada-ama.org/sites/default/files/resources/files/2021_wada_code.pdf - Ljungqvist A. Brief history of anti-doping. Med Sport Sci 2017;62:1–10. doi: 10.1159/000460680
- Santalla A, Earnest C, Rodriguez-Marroyo J, Lucia A. The Tour de France: an updated physiological review. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2012;7:200–9. doi: 10.1123/ijspp.7.3.200
- Mørkeberg J. Blood manipulation: current challenges from an anti-doping perspective. Hematology Am Soc Hematol Educ Program 2013;2013:627–31. doi: 10.1182/asheducation-2013.1.627
- 5.
World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA). Coordinating Investigations and Sharing Anti-Doping Information and Evidence, 2011 [displayed 14 April 2023]. Available at
https://www.wada-ama.org/sites/default/files/resources/files/WADA_Investigations_Guidelines_May2011_EN.pdf World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) Coordinating Investigations and Sharing Anti-Doping Information and Evidence 2011 [displayed 14 April 2023]. Available athttps://www.wada-ama.org/sites/default/files/resources/files/WADA_Investigations_Guidelines_May2011_EN.pdf - Plumb JOM, Otto JM, Grocott MPW. “Blood doping” from Armstrong to prehabilitation: manipulation of blood to improve performance in athletes and physiological reserve in patients. Extrem Physiol Med 2016;5:5. doi: 10.1186/s13728-016-0046-0
- de Oliveira CDR, de Bairros AV, Yonamine M. Blood doping: risks to athletes’ health and strategies for detection. Subst Use Misuse 2014;49:1168–81. doi: 10.3109/10826084.2014.903754
- Cazzola M. A global strategy for prevention and detection of blood doping with erythropoietin and related drugs. Haematologica 2000;85:561–3. PMID: 10870110
- Johansson PI, Ullum H, Jensen K, Secher NH. A retrospective cohort study of blood hemoglobin levels in blood donors and competitive rowers. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2009;19:92–5. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0838.2008.00771.x
- 10.
World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA). WADA’s Athlete Biological Passport: an important tool for protecting clean sport, 2021 [displayed 2023 Jan 18]. Available at
https://www.wada-ama.org/en/news/wadas-athlete-biological-passport-important-tool-protecting-clean-sport World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) WADA’s Athlete Biological Passport: an important tool for protecting clean sport 2021 [displayed 2023 Jan 18]. Available athttps://www.wada-ama.org/en/news/wadas-athlete-biological-passport-important-tool-protecting-clean-sport - Dunn JOC, Mythen MG, Grocott MP. Physiology of oxygen transport. BJA Education 2016;16:341–8. doi: 10.1093/bjaed/mkw012
- Bailey DM, Davies B. Physiological implications of altitude training for endurance performance at sea level: a review. Br J Sports Med 1997;31:183–90. doi: 10.1136/bjsm.31.3.183
- Sitkowski D, Szygula Z, Pokrywka A, Turowski D, Malczewska-Lenczowska J. Interrelationships between changes in erythropoietin, plasma volume, haemoglobin concentration, and total haemoglobin mass in endurance athletes. Res Sports Med 2018;26:381–9. doi: 10.1080/15438627.2018.1447936
- Dragcevic D, Jaksic O. Blood doping - physiological background, substances and techniques used, current and future detection methods. Sci Sports 2023;38:498–509. doi: 10.1016/j.scispo.2022.12.003
- 15.
World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA). Athlete Biological Passport Operating Guidelines, 2021 [displayed 17 January 2023]. Available at
https://www.wada-ama.org/sites/default/files/resources/files/guidelines_abp_v8_final.pdf World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) Athlete Biological Passport Operating Guidelines 2021 [displayed 17 January 2023]. Available athttps://www.wada-ama.org/sites/default/files/resources/files/guidelines_abp_v8_final.pdf - Saugy M, Lundby C, Robinson N. Monitoring of biological markers indicative of doping: The athlete biological passport. Br J Sports Med 2014;48:827–32. doi: 10.1136/bjsports-2014-093512
- Giraud S, Robinson N, Mangin P, Saugy M. Scientific and forensic standards for homologous blood transfusion anti-doping analyses. Forensic Sci Int 200;179:23–33. doi: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2008.04.007
- Robinson N, Sottas P-E, Mangin P, Saugy M. Bayesian detection of abnormal hematological values to introduce a no-start rule for heterogeneous populations of athletes. Haematologica 2007;92:1143–4. doi: 10.3324/haematol.11182
- Sottas PE, Robinson N, Saugy M. The athlete’s biological passport and indirect markers of blood doping. In: Thieme D, Hemmersbach P, editors. Doping in Sports: Biochemical Principles, Effects and Analysis. Handbook of Experimental Pharmacolgy. Vol. 195. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer; 2010. p. 305–26. doi: 10.1007/978-3-540-79088-4_14
- Robinson N, Sottas PE, Pottgiesser T, Schumacher YO, Saugy M. Stability and robustness of blood variables in an antidoping context. Int J Lab Hematol 2011;33:146–53. doi: 10.1111/j.1751-553X.2010.01256.x
- Sottas PE, Robinson N, Saugy M, Niggli O. A forensic approach to the interpretation of blood doping markers. Law Probab Risk 2008;7:191–210. doi: 10.1093/lpr/mgm042
- Hollowell JG, van Assendelft OW, Gunter EW, Lewis BG, Najjar M, Pfeiffer C; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics. Hematological and iron-related analytes - reference data for persons aged 1 year and over: United States, 1988–94. Vital Health Stat Ser. 11 2005;(247):1–156. PMID: 15782774
- Jorgensen JM, Crespo-Bellido M, Dewey KG. Variation in hemoglobin across the life cycle and between males and females. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2019;1450:105–25. doi: 10.1111/nyas.14096
- Murphy WG. The sex difference in haemoglobin levels in adults - Mechanisms, causes, and consequences. Blood Rev 2014;28:41–7. doi: 10.1016/j.blre.2013.12.003
- Adeli K, Raizman JE, Chen Y, Higgins V, Nieuwesteeg M, Abdelhaleem M, Wong SL, Blais D. Complex biological profile of hematologic markers across pediatric, adult, and geriatric ages: establishment of robust pediatric and adult reference intervals on the basis of the Canadian Health Measures Survey. Clin Chem 2015;61:1075–86. doi: 10.1373/clinchem.2015.240531
- Lim E, Miyamura J, Chen JJ. Racial/ethnic-specific reference intervals for common laboratory tests: a comparison among Asians, Blacks, Hispanics, and White. Hawaii J Med Public Health 2015;74:302–10. PMCID: PMC4578165
- Beutler E, West C. Hematologic differences between African-Americans and whites: the roles of iron deficiency and α-thalassemia on hemoglobin levels and mean corpuscular volume. Blood 2005;106:740–5. doi: 10.1182/blood-2005-02-0713
- Ghosh AK. Anaerobic threshold: its concept and role in endurance sport. Malays J Med Sci 2004;11:24–36. PMCID: PMC3438148
- Heinicke K, Wolfarth B, Winchenbach P, Biermann B, Schmid A, Huber G, Friedmann B, Schmidt W. Blood volume and hemoglobin mass in elite athletes of different disciplines. Int J Sports Med 2001;22:504–12. doi: 10.1055/s-2001-17613
- Mairbäurl H. Red blood cells in sports: effects of exercise and training on oxygen supply by red blood cells. Front Physiol 2013;4:332. doi: 10.3389/fphys.2013.00332
- Lobigs LM, Sharpe K, Garvican-Lewis LA, Gore CJ, Peeling P, Dawson B, Schumacher YO. The athlete’s hematological response to hypoxia: A meta-analysis on the influence of altitude exposure on key biomarkers of erythropoiesis. Am J Hematol 2018;93:74–83. doi: 10.1002/ajh.24941
- Garvican-Lewis LA, Sharpe K, Gore KJ. Time for a new metric for hypoxic dose? J Appl Physiol 2016;121:352–5. doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00579.2015
- 33.
Acar UA, Ihler AT, Mettu RR, Sumer O. Adaptive Bayesian Inference. NIPS 2007 [displayed 10 March 2023]. Available at
https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Adaptive-Bayesian-inference-Acar-Ihler/85cd2ab6e53f1565922d7764c44865af4739f68c AcarUA IhlerAT MettuRR SumerO Adaptive Bayesian Inference NIPS 2007 [displayed 10 March 2023]. Available athttps://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Adaptive-Bayesian-inference-Acar-Ihler/85cd2ab6e53f1565922d7764c44865af4739f68c - Montagna S, Hopker J. A Bayesian approach for the use of athlete performance data within anti-doping. Front Physiol 2018;9:884. doi: 10.3389/fphys.2018.00884
- Krumm B, Botrè F, Saugy JJ, Faiss R. Future opportunities for the Athlete Biological Passport. Front Sports Act Living 2022;4:986875. doi: 10.3389/fspor.2022.986875
- Zorzoli M. Biological passport parameters. J Hum Sport Exerc 2011;6:205–17. doi: 10.4100/jhse.2011.62.02
- Schütz F, Zollinger A. ABPS: An R package for calculating the abnormal blood profile score. Front Physiol 2018;9:1638. doi: 10.3389/fphys.2018.01638
- Zorzoli M, Rossi F. Implementation of the biological passport: the experience of the International Cycling Union. Drug Test Anal 2010;2:542–7. doi: 10.1002/dta.173
- Robinson N, Saugy M, Vernec A, Pierre-Edouard S. The athlete biological passport: an effective tool in the fight against doping. Clin Chem 2011;57:830–2. doi: 10.1373/clinchem.2011.162107
- Banfi G, Lombardi G, Colombini A, Lippi G. Analytical variability in sport hematology: its importance in an antidoping setting. Clin Chem Lab Med 2011;49:779–82. doi: 10.1515/CCLM.2011.125
- 41.
World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA). ADEL [displayed 25 February 2023]. Available at
https://adel.wada-ama.org/en/node/335/take World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) ADEL [displayed 25 February 2023]. Available athttps://adel.wada-ama.org/en/node/335/take - 42.
World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA). WADA welcomes enhanced long-term sample storage and re-analysis program [displayed 21 February 2023]. Available at
https://www.wada-ama.org/en/news/wada-welcomes-enhanced-long-term-sample-storage-and-re-analysis-program World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) WADA welcomes enhanced long-term sample storage and re-analysis program [displayed 21 February 2023] Available athttps://www.wada-ama.org/en/news/wada-welcomes-enhanced-long-term-sample-storage-and-re-analysis-program - 43.
World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA). Athlete Biological Passport (ABP) Custodianship and Information Sharing [displayed 1 February 2023]. Available at
https://www.wada-ama.org/sites/default/files/resources/files/abp-passport-custodianship-sharing-information-final_0.pdf World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) Athlete Biological Passport (ABP) Custodianship and Information Sharing [displayed 1 February 2023] Available athttps://www.wada-ama.org/sites/default/files/resources/files/abp-passport-custodianship-sharing-information-final_0.pdf - Mullen J, Baekken L, Bergström H, Björkhem Bergman L, Ericsson M, Ekström L. Fluctuations in hematological athlete biological passport biomarkers in relation to the menstrual cycle. Drug Test Anal 2020;12:1229–40. doi: 10.1002/dta.2873
- Bellemare V, Faucher F, Breston R, Van Luu T. Characterization of 17α hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase activity (17α HSD) and its involvement in biosynthesis of epitestosterone. BMC Biochem 2005;6:12. doi: 10.1186/1471-2091-6-12
- Aguilera R, Hatton CK, Catlin DH. Detection of epitestosterone doping by isotope ratio mass spectrometry. Clin Chem 2002;48:629–36. doi: 10.1093/clinchem/48.4.629
- Van Eenoo P, Delbeke FT. Metabolism and excretion of anabolic steroids in doping control - New steroids and new insights. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2006;101:161–78. doi: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2006.06.024
- Bowers LD. Testosterone doping: dealing with genetic differences in metabolism and excretion. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2008;93:2469–71. doi: 10.1210/jc.2008-0977
- Kicman AT. Pharmacology of anabolic steroids. Br J Pharmacol 2008;154:502–21. doi: 10.1038/bjp.2008.165
- Death AK, McGrath KCY, Kazlauskas R, Handelsman DJ. Tetrahydrogestrinone is a potent androgen and progestin. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004;89:2498–500. doi: 10.1210/jc.2004-0033
- Martín-Escudero P, Muñoz-Guerra J, Del Prado N, Galindo Canales M, Fuentes Ferrer M, Vargas S, Soldevilla AB, Serrano-Garde E, Miguel-Tobal F, Maestro de Las Casas M, Fernandez-Pérez C. Impact of UGT2B17 gene deletion on the steroid profile of an athlete. Physiol Rep 2015;3(12):e12645. doi: 10.14814/phy2.12645
- Robinson N, Sottas PE, Schumacher YO. The athlete biological passport: how to personalize anti-doping testing across an athlete’s career? Med Sport Sci 2017;62:107–18. doi: 10.1159/000460722
- Piper T, Thevis M. Applications of isotope ratio mass spectrometry in sports drug testing accounting for isotope fractionation in analysis of biological samples. Methods Enzymol 2017;596:403–32. doi: 10.1016/bs.mie.2017.07.013
- Mareck U, Geyer H, Opfermann G, Thevis M, Schänzer W. Factors influencing the steroid profile in doping control analysis. J Mass Spectrom 2008;43:877–91. doi: 10.1002/jms.1457
- Prommer N, Sottas PE, Schoch C, Schumacher YO, Schmidt W. Total hemoglobin mass-a new parameter to detect blood doping? Med Sci Sports Exerc 2008;40:2112–8. doi: 10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181820942
- Pottgiesser T, Echteler T, Sottas PE, Umhau M, Schumacher YO. Hemoglobin mass and biological passport for the detection of autologous blood doping. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2012;44:835–43. doi: 10.1249/MSS.0b013e31823bcfb6
- Schumacher YO, Pottgiesser T. The impact of acute gastroenteritis on haematological markers used for the Athletes Biological Passport - report of 5 cases. Int J Sports Med 2011;32:147–50. doi: 10.1055/s-0030-1268463
- Athanasiadou I, Christian Voss S, El Saftawy W, Al-Maadheed M, Valsami G, Georgakopoulos C. Hyperhydration using different hydration agents does not affect the haematological markers of the athlete biological passport in euhydrated volunteers. J Sports Sci 2020;38:1924–32. doi: 10.1080/02640414.2020.1763772
- Leuenberger N, Bulla E, Salamin O, Nicoli R, Robinson N, Baume N, Baume N, Saugy M. Hepcidin as a potential biomarker for blood doping. Drug Test Anal 2017;9:1093–7. doi: 10.1002/dta.2122
- Craviari C, Fossati C, Quaranta F, Tomassi G, Fagnani F, Borrione P. Hepcidin as possible new indirect biomarker for blood doping. Med Sport 2021;74:153–74. doi: 10.23736/S0025-7826.21.03877-1
- Jeppesen JS, Breenfeldt Andersen A, Bonne TC, Thomassen M, Sørensen H, Nordsborg NB, Olsen NV, Huertas JR, Bejder J. Immature reticulocytes are sensitive and specific to low-dose erythropoietin treatment at sea level and altitude. Drug Test Anal 2021;13:1331–40. doi: 10.1002/dta.3031
- de la Torre X, Colamonici C, Curcio D, Botrè F. Fast IRMS screening of pseudoendogenous steroids in doping analyses. Drug Test Anal 2017;9:1804–12. doi: 10.1002/dta.2321
- de la Torre X, Jardines D, Botrè F. Evaluation of longitudinal 13C isotope ratio mass spectrometric data in antidoping analysis. Drug Test Anal 2022;14:1877–90. doi: 10.1002/dta.3339
- Ponzetto F, Mehl F, Boccard J, Baume N, Rudaz S, Saugy M, Nicoli R. Longitudinal monitoring of endogenous steroids in human serum by UHPLC-MS/MS as a tool to detect testosterone abuse in sports. Anal Bioanal Chem 2016;408:705–19. doi: 10.1007/s00216-015-9185-1
- Salamin O, Mignot J, Kuuranne T, Saugy M, Leuenberger N. Transcriptomic biomarkers of altered erythropoiesis to detect autologous blood transfusion. Drug Test Anal 2018;10:604–8. doi: 10.1002/dta.2240
- Mussack V, Wittmann G, Pfaffl MW. On the trail of blood doping - microRNA fingerprints to monitor autologous blood transfusions in vivo. Am J Hematol 2021;96:338–53. doi: 10.1002/ajh.26078
- Marrocco C, Pallotta V, D’Alessandro A, Alves G, Zolla L. Red blood cell populations and membrane levels of peroxiredoxin 2 as candidate biomarkers to reveal blood doping. Blood Transfus 2012;10(Suppl 2):s71–7. doi: 10.2450/2012.011S
- 68.
World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA). Anti-Doping Testing Figures Report [displayed 26 January 2024]. Available at
https://www.wadaama.org/en/resources/anti-doping-stats/anti-doping-testing-figures-report World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) Anti-Doping Testing Figures Report [displayed 26 January 2024] Available athttps://www.wadaama.org/en/resources/anti-doping-stats/anti-doping-testing-figures-report - Equey T, Pastor A, de la Torre Fornell R, Thomas A, Giraud S, Thevis M, Kuuranne T, Baume N, Barroso O, Aikin R. Application of the athlete biological passport approach to the detection of growth hormone doping. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2022;107:649–59. doi: 10.1210/clinem/dgab799
- Ericsson M, Bhuiyan H, Yousif B, Lehtihet M, Ekström L. The intra-individual stability of GH biomarkers IGF-I and P-III-NP in relation to GHRH administration, menstrual cycle, and hematological parameters. Drug Test Anal 2020;12:1620–8. doi: 10.1002/dta.2953
- Erotokritou-Mulligan I, Eryl Bassett E, Cowan DA, Bartlett C, Milward P, Sartorio A, Sönksen PH, Holt RI. The use of growth hormone (GH)-dependent markers in the detection of GH abuse in sport: Physiological intra-individual variation of IGF-I, type 3 pro-collagen (P-III-P) and the GH-2000 detection score. Clin Endocrinol 2010;72:520–6. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2265.2009.03668.x