References
- Matthieu Leimgruber / Matthias Schmelzer (eds.): The OECD and the International Political Economy since 1948, Cham 2017; Richard T. Griffiths (ed.): Explorations in OEEC History, Paris 2009 [1997]; OECD: European Reconstruction 1948–1960. A Bibliography on the Marshall Plan and the Organisation for European Co-operation and Development, Paris 1996.
- Richard T. Griffiths: An Act of Creative Leadership. The End of the OEEC and the Birth of the OECD, in: Griffiths (ed.): Explorations, pp. 235-256, p. 236.
- Leimgruber / Schmelzer: International Political Economy, p. 17.
- One notable exception with a distinct organizational focus is: Matthias Schmelzer: The Hegemony of Growth. The OECD and the Making of the Economic Growth Paradigm, Cambridge 2016.
- Anne Deighton: Three Ministers and the World They Made. Acheson, Bevin and Schuman, and the North Atlantic Treaty March–April 1949, in: Jussi Hanhimäki / Georges-Henri Soutou / Basil Germond (eds.): The Routledge Handbook of Transatlantic Security, London 2017, pp. 25–46; Sally Rohan: The Western European Union. International Politics between Alliance and Integration, Oxford 2014; Piers N. Ludlow (ed.): European Integration and the Cold War. Ostpolitik-Westpolitik 1965–1973, London 2009; Rik Coolsaet: Atlantic Loyalty, European Autonomy. Belgium and the Atlantic Alliance, 1949–2009, Ghent / Brussels 2009; Michael Creswell / Marc Trachtenberg: France and the German Question, 1945–1955, in: Journal of Cold War Studies 5/3 (2003), pp. 5–28; Marc Trachtenberg: A Constructed Peace. The Making of the European Settlement 1945–1963, Princeton 1999; John Baylis: The Diplomacy of Pragmatism. Britain and the Formation of NATO 1942–1949, Basingstoke 1993. For two recent overview histories of NATO: Steen Rynning: NATO. From the Cold War to Ukraine, a History of the World’s Most Powerful Alliance, Yale 2024; Timothy A. Sayle: Enduring Alliance. A History of NATO and the Postwar Global Order, Ithaca 2019.
- Robert S. Jordan: Political Leadership in NATO. A Study in Multinational Diplomacy, Westview Press 1979; Robert S. Jordan: The NATO International Staff/Secretariat 1952–1957. A Study in International Administration, Oxford 1967; Lord Ismay: NATO. The First Five Years 1949–1954, NATO/University of Michigan 1954. For a more recent account: Linda Risso: ‘I am the Servant of the Council’: Lord Ismay and the Making of the NATO International Staff, in: Contemporary European History 28/3 (2019), pp. 342–357.
- Alan S. Milward: NATO, OEEC, and the Integration of Europe, in: Francis H. Heller / John R. Gillingham (eds.): NATO. The Founding of the Atlantic Alliance and the Integration of Europe, New York 1992, pp. 240–252.
- Geiger Till: Western Defense, Economic Cooperation and The Atlantic Paradox. Multilateralism and Governmentality in the Cold War (1949–1960), in: Régine Perron / Guido Thiemeyer (eds.): Multilateralism and the Trente Glorieuses in Europe. New Perspectives in European integration History, Neuchâtel 2011, pp. 177–198.
- Jean Monnet: Memoirs. Introduction by George W. Ball, Garden City New York 1978, p. 265.
- Schmelzer: The Hegemony of Growth, p. 39.
- Philip C. Brooks: Oral History Interview with Edwin N. Plowden & Douglas Allen, in: Harry S. Truman Library National Archives, online: https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/oral-histories/plowden (18.12. 2024).
- Bruce L. R. Smith: Lincoln Gordon. Architect of Cold War Foreign Policy, Lewington 2015, p. 183.
- Edwin Plowden: An Industrialist in the Treasury. The Post-War Years, London 1989, p. 28.
- Rudy Abramson: Spanning the Century. The Life of W. Averell Harriman, 1891–1986, New York 1992, p. 416.
- Smith: Lincoln Gordon, p. 128.
- Alix Heiniger: Marjolin. Robert Ernest, in: Reinalda Bob / Kent J. Kille / Jaci Eisenberg, IO BIO. Biographical Dictionary of Secretaries-General of International Organizations, online: http://www.ru.nl/FM/iobio. (28. 07. 2023), pp. 2–3.
- Robert Marjolin: Le travail d’une vie. Mémoires 1911–1986, Paris 1986, p. 190.
- OEEC: History and Structure, Paris 1948, p. 14.
- Plowden: An Industrialist, p. 40.
- OEEC: History, p. 14.
- OEEC: History, p. 15.
- Eric Roll: Crowded Hours, London 1985, p. 57.
- OEEC: History, pp. 17–21.
- Marjolin: Travail d’une vie, p. 192. Marjolin later recalled the delicate diplomacy required to secure agreement within the OEEC.
- Marjolin: Travail d’une vie, pp. 191, 194–195.
- Michael Hogan: The Marshall Plan. America, Britain and the Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1947–1952, Cambridge 1987.
- Sayle: Enduring Alliance, p. 11.
- Importantly, Gladwyn Jebb produced and sold to Ernest Bevin the original idea. Escott Reid: Time of Fear and Hope. The Making of the North Atlantic Treaty, 1947–1949, Toronto 1977, p. 68.
- Sayle: Enduring Alliance, p. 11.
- Four events helped along these efforts: The February 1948 ›Prague coup‹, Soviet overtures for a ›friendship pact‹ with Norway, the Soviet pact of April 1948 with Finland, and the Soviet blockade of Allied-controlled West Berlin (June 1948–May 1949). This alliance had to be compatible with Art. 51. United Nations Charter. https://legal.un.org/repertory/art51.shtml (19. 12. 24).
- Reid: Time of Fear and Hope, p. 62.
- Lawrence S. Kaplan: NATO 1948: The Birth of the Transatlantic Alliance, London 2007, pp. 15–31.
- Bob Reinalda: International Secretariats. Two Centuries of International Civil Servants and Secretariats, London 2021, pp. 112–113.
- Sayle: Enduring Alliance, p. 17; John C. Milloy: The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, 1948–1957. Community or Alliance?, Montreal 2006, p. 35.
- Karen Gram-Skjoldager: Bringing the Diplomat Back In: Elements of a New Historical Research Agenda, in: Working Papers, EUI RSCAS 2011/13.
- Plowden: An Industrialist, p. 72.
- Monnet: Memoirs, p. 210.
- Monnet: Memoirs, p. 275; Historical Archives of the European Union (Fiesole) [HAEU], Interview 506, »Etienne Hirsch«, 22. 09. 1987.
- Monnet: Memoirs, p. 268.
- Heiniger: Marjolin, pp. 1–3.
- Marjolin: Le travail d’une vie, pp. 186–187.
- Marjolin: Le travail d’une vie, pp. 238–239.
- Abramson: Spanning the Century, pp. 437–443, 461.
- John R. Gillingham: Introduction, in: Francis H. Heller / John R. Gillingham (eds): NATO. The Founding of the Atlantic Alliance and the Integration of Europe, New York 1992, pp. 7–8.
- Marjolin: Le travail d’une vie, p. 195.
- Heiniger: Marjolin, pp. 2–3.
- Smith: Lincoln Gordon, pp. 157, 167.
- Richard D. McKinzie: Lincoln Gordon Oral History Interview, in: Harry S. Truman Library National Archives, online: https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/oral-histories/gordonl. (18. 12. 2024).
- Smith: Lincoln Gordon, pp. 143–144, 147.
- Brooks: Plowden & Allen, online.
- Plowden: An Industrialist, p. 73. Churchill Archives, PLDN (Plowden Papers) 212/6 »Correspondence with Jean Monnet, 1959–71«. The two corresponded regularly and intimately up until the 1970s.
- Plowden: An Industrialist, pp. 71–72.
- Plowden: An Industrialist, p. 126.
- Theodore A. Wilson: Oral History Interview with Sir Eric Roll, in: Harry S. Truman Library National Archives, online: https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/oral-histories/rolle. (18. 12. 2024).
- Roll: Crowded Hours, pp. 51, 55–56.
- Roll: Crowded Hours, p. 69.
- Wilson: Sir Eric Roll, online.
- Roll: Crowded Hours, p. 76.
- Monnet: Memoirs, p. 268.
- The outbreak of the Korean War drove the USA to ask its allies to plan for the rearmament of West Germany. This prodded Jean Monnet to develop the idea of organising European defence on a supranational level, which René Pleven, the French Premier and former Defence Minister, eventually proposed in October 1950. The plan proposed the creation of a European army, with the eventual involvement of German units, to be placed under a single military and political European authority — a European Defence Community (EDC). In the early 1950s, therefore, the NATO Council examined the issue of German participation in Western defence. Negotiations on this matter had taken place throughout 1951 within the framework of the debate on the European Defence Community. In Lisbon in 1952, the Council gave its approval in principle to the various reports presented and reaffirmed the urgent need to establish an effective European defence system with Germany’s participation. Three months later, on May 27, 1952, the treaty establishing the EDC was signed in Paris. What followed was a long and fiery debate, and with the end of the Korean War and the death of Stalin, the EDC was eventually rejected by the French National Assembly in August 1954. This paved the way for West German membership in NATO on 6 May 1955, Three conditions needed to be fulfilled before this could happen: France, Britain, the US and the Soviet Union had to end the occupation of German territories; Italy and West Germany would need to be admitted to the Western Union Defence Organisation (the military agency of the Western Union), turning it into the Western European Union; and the accession procedure itself.
- Fondation Jean Monnet (Lausanne) [FJM], Fonds Robert Marjolin [ARM], Relations OECE-OTAN [4/7], Doc. 1, »OEEC and Rearmement - Organisational problems«, 21. 07. 1950.
- FJM, ARM, 4/7, Doc. 1, »OEEC and Rearmement - Organisational problems«, 21. 07. 1950.
- FJM, ARM, 4/7, Doc. 1, »OEEC and Rearmement - Organisational problems«, 21. 07. 1950.
- FJM, ARM, 4/7, Doc. 1, »OEEC and Rearmement - Organisational problems«, 21. 07. 1950.
- FJM, ARM, 4/7, Relations OECE-OTAN [4/7], Doc. 13., »Lettre, de Robert Marjolin à Dag Hammarskjold (Secretary General, Foreign Officece, Stockholm)«, 13. 09. 1950.
- FJM, ARM, 4/7, Doc. 1, »OEEC and Rearmement - Organisational problems«, 21. 07. 1950.
- FJM, ARM, 4/7, Doc. 1, »OEEC and Rearmement - Organisational problems«, 21. 07. 1950.
- FJM, ARM, 4/7, Doc. 1, »OEEC and Rearmement - Organisational problems«, 21. 07. 1950.
- FJM, ARM, 4/7, Doc. 2, »Lettre, de Harry J. Lintott à Robert Marjolin«, 26. 08. 1950.
- FJM, ARM, 4/7, Doc. 2, »Lettre, de Harry J. Lintott à Robert Marjolin«, 26. 08. 1950.
- FJM, ARM, 4/7, Doc. 6, »Lettre, de Robert Marjolin à Harry J. Lintott«, 07. 09. 1950.
- See, for example, Michael af Malmborg: From Bridge-Building to West European Economic integration: Sweden in the OEEC, in: Griffiths (ed.): Explorations, pp. 169–176.
- Created in 1950, the European Payments Union (EPU) was designed to streamline trade and financial exchanges among European nations in the wake of World War II. Its primary goal was to tackle challenges related to unstable currencies and trade imbalances that were impeding economic recovery. The EPU introduced a multilateral clearing system, enabling member states to collectively offset trade surpluses and deficits, rather than relying solely on bilateral arrangements. It also offered a credit facility to assist countries experiencing trade deficits, thereby fostering economic collaboration and paving the way towards currency convertibility. By late 1958, the currencies of the seventeen participating countries progressively became convertible into US dollars or other currencies. This process culminated in December 1958, when full convertibility was achieved, making the EPU redundant and leading to its closure. See OECE: Histoire et structure, Paris 1960, pp. 13–14.
- FJM, ARM, 4/7, Doc. 5., »Record of Lunch given by the Secretary General on Wednesday, September 6, 1950«, 06. 09. 1950. Marjolin later noted that the Swiss and Swedes were »visibly frightened« of being left out of relevant discussions, and that this – for the moment – outweighed neutrality concerns. See FJM, ARM, 4/7, Doc. 6.
- FJM, ARM, 4/7, Doc. 8, »Lettre, de Robert Marjolin à Dirk Stikker (Président du Conseil de l’OECE)«, 09. 09. 1950. He could also report that the Norwegian delegation had informed him that they too were entirely in agreement with the plan of action pursued by Stikker.
- FJM, ARM, 4/7, Doc. 9, »Note complémentaire sur le problème des relations entre la NATO et l’OECE«, 08. 09. 1950.
- FJM, ARM, 4/7, Doc. 9, »Note complémentaire sur le problème des relations entre la NATO et l’OECE«, 08. 09. 1950.
- FJM, ARM, 4/7, Doc. 9, »Note complémentaire sur le problème des relations entre la NATO et l’OECE«, 08. 09. 1950.
- FJM, ARM, 4/7, Doc. 9, »Note complémentaire sur le problème des relations entre la NATO et l’OECE«, 08. 09. 1950.
- FJM, ARM, 4/7, Doc. 11, »Problèmes économiques généraux posés par le réarmement du monde occidental - Nécessité d’un bilan d’ensemble des besoins et des ressources du monde occidental«, 14. 09. 1950.
- FJM, ARM, 4/7, Doc. 11, »Problèmes économiques généraux posés par le réarmement du monde occidental - Nécessité d’un bilan d’ensemble des besoins et des ressources du monde occidental«, 14. 09. 1950.
- FJM, ARM, 4/7, Doc. 11, »Problèmes économiques généraux posés par le réarmement du monde occidental - Nécessité d’un bilan d’ensemble des besoins et des ressources du monde occidental«, 14. 09. 1950.
- FJM, ARM, 4/7, Doc. 11, »Problèmes économiques généraux posés par le réarmement du monde occidental - Nécessité d’un bilan d’ensemble des besoins et des ressources du monde occidental«, 14. 09. 1950.
- FJM, ARM, 4/7, Doc. 11, »Problèmes économiques généraux posés par le réarmement du monde occidental - Nécessité d’un bilan d’ensemble des besoins et des ressources du monde occidental«, 14. 09. 1950.
- FJM, ARM, 4/7, Doc. 11.
- FJM, ARM, 4/7, Doc. 14, »Dîner 6 octobre 1950 - Lucas Carton - Problème posé par M. Stikker: Relations entre NATO et OECE«, 06. 10. 1950.
- FJM, ARM, 4/7, Doc. 14, »Dîner 6 octobre 1950 - Lucas Carton - Problème posé par M. Stikker: Relations entre NATO et OECE«, 06. 10. 1950.
- FJM, ARM, 4/7, Doc. 15, »An informal meeting between the Secretary-General of OEEC and the NATO Working Party was held…«, 03. 11. 1950.
- FJM, ARM, 4/7, Doc. 15, »An informal meeting between the Secretary-General of OEEC and the NATO Working Party was held…«, 03. 11. 1950.
- FJM, ARM, 4/7, Doc. 15, »An informal meeting between the Secretary-General of OEEC and the NATO Working Party was held…«, 03. 11. 1950.
- FJM, ARM, 4/7, Doc. 16, »OEEC, NATO and the Atlantic Community«, 05. 12. 1950. All quotes in the above paragraph.
- FJM, ARM, 4/7, Doc. 16, »OEEC, NATO and the Atlantic Community«, 05. 12. 1950.
- FJM, ARM, 4/7, Doc. 16, »OEEC, NATO and the Atlantic Community«, 05. 12. 1950.
- FJM, ARM, 4/7, Doc. 18, »Note on the meeting between Mr. Marjolin, Mr. Roll and Mr. Livermore, Thursday, 18th January, at 11.30 a.m.«, 18. 01. 1951.
- FJM, ARM, 4/7, Doc. 19, »Conversation avec MM. Katz et H[all] P[atch]«, 06. 03. 1951.
- FJM, ARM, 4/7, Doc. 19, »Conversation avec MM. Katz et H[all] P[atch]«, 06. 03. 1951.
- FJM, ARM, 4/7, Doc. 19, »Conversation avec MM. Katz et H[all] P[atch]«, 06. 03. 1951.
- FJM, ARM, 4/7, Doc. 19, »Conversation avec MM. Katz et H[all] P[atch]«, 06. 03. 1951.
- FJM, ARM, 4/7, Doc. 19, »Conversation avec MM. Katz et H[all] P[atch]«, 06. 03. 1951.
- In November 1949, alongside the establishment of the Military Committee as NATO’s highest authority for discussing purely military issues, the DFEC was also created as a forum to address common financial problems. At that time, two major issues required international discussion: burden sharing and raw material allocation. With the clearer definition of national military tasks under the Medium-Term Defense Plan, agreed in November 1950, it became evident that defining the equitable distribution of the economic burdens of that Plan would be beneficial. To avoid duplicating efforts and to leverage the experience developed around the OEEC, the Board of Financial and Economic Experts, commonly known as the Working Group of Twelve, was established in October under the NATO Council of Deputies. This group was to work in Paris, comprising economic experts from the OEEC delegations of NATO powers, but without utilising the OEEC Secretariat. FJM, ARM, 4/7, Doc. 25, »O.E.E.C.-NATO Relations, 1950–1953«, 03. 03. 1953, p. 2.
- Jordan: The NATO International Staff, pp. 26–27.
- FJM, ARM, 4/7, Doc. 22, »Compte rendu de l’entretien entre MM. Le Roy, Beaulieu, Roll, Marjolin, Colonna«, 27. 07. 1951.
- FJM, ARM, 4/7, Doc. 25, p. 3.
- Plowden: An Industrialist, London 1989, p. 125.
- HAEU, Interview 574, »Interview with Brian Reddaway in Cambridge on 27 July 1998«, 27. 07. 1998, p. 7. Brian Reddaway, then head of the OEEC Economics Directorate, was directly involved in the work of the TCC, collaborating closely with Robert Marjolin.
- Lincoln Gordon: Economic Aspects of Coalition Diplomacy – The NATO Experience, in: International Organization 10/4 (November 1956), pp. 534–535.
- Roll: Crowded Hours, p. 73.
- FJM, ARM, 4/7, Doc. 25, p. 3.
- HAEU, Interview 576, »Interview with Lord Roll in London on 29 July 1998«, 28. 07. 1998, p. 3.
- Gordon: Economic Aspects of Coalition Diplomacy, p. 540.
- Monnet: Memoirs, p. 268.
- Roll: Crowded Hours, p. 58.
- Plowden: An Industrialist, p. 127.
- Ismay: OTAN, p. 47.
- Jordan The NATO International Staff, pp. 204–205.
- Plowden: An Industrialist, pp. 127–128.
- Plowden: An Industrialist, pp. 127–128.
- Jordan: The NATO International Staff, p. 208.
- Jordan: The NATO International Staff, p. 208.
- Plowden: An Industrialist, p. 130.
- FJM, ARM, 4/7, Doc. 25, p. 3.
- FJM, ARM, 4/7, Doc. 25, p. 4.
- Jordan: The NATO International Staff, pp. 208–209.
- Plowden: An Industrialist, pp. 131–132.
- Ismay: OTAN, p. 50.
- Ismay: OTAN, pp. 50–51.
- FJM, ARM, 4/7, Doc. 25, p. 4.
- FJM, ARM, 4/7, Doc. 25, p. 4.
- NATO ARCHIVES, AC/19-D/16, 11th September 1952, »Annual Review Committee. Country Interviews by OEEC: Coordination with NATO. Note by Secretariat«.
- Ismay: OTAN, p. 89.
- HAEU, Organisation for European Economic Cooperation [OEEC], Box 199, »Curriculum vitae de M. René Sergent, Secrétaire général de l’OECE«.
- Sayle: Enduring Alliance; Sten Rynning: NATO. From Cold War to Ukraine, a history of the world’s most powerful alliance, Yale 2024.
- NATO Annual Review Committee “Administrative History”, https://archives.nato.int/annual-review (19.12.24).
- This shift reflected the organization’s broadened mandate beyond Europe, to include global economic cooperation among industrialized nations, notably with the inclusion of the United States and Canada. On the reconstitution of the OEEC into the OECD, see Marine Pierre: Birth and Rebirth. Exploring the Transition from the OEEC to the OECD from the Secretariat’s Perspective (1958–60), (2024), Under Review.
- Schmelzer: The Hegemony of Growth, pp. 42–44.
- Marjolin, Le travail d’une vie, pp. 245–246.
- HAEU, OEEC, Box 199, »Curriculum vitae de M. René Sergent, Secrétaire général de l’OECE«.
- Leimgruber / Schmelzer: From the Marshall Plan to Global Governance: Historical Transformations of the OEEC/OECD. 1948 to Present, in: Leimgruber / Schmelzer (eds.): The OCDE and the International Political Economy since 1948, Cham 2017, p. 33.
- Gordon: Economic Aspects of Coalition Diplomacy, p. 541.
- Thorkil Kristensen: Erindinger, Odense 1989, p. 42.
- Kristensen: Erindinger, pp. 46, 52–53.
- Kristensen: Erindinger, pp. 75–76.
- Matthias Schmelzer: Kristensen. Thorkil, in: Reinalda Bob / Kent J. Kille / Jaci Eisenberg, IO BIO. Biographical Dictionary of Secretaries-General of International Organizations, online: www.Ru.nl/FM/iobio (28. 07. 2023).