Have a personal or library account? Click to login
Antimicrobial functional ingredients used in hand hygiene products: a cross-sectional survey on regional e-commerce platforms in Wuhan area of China Cover

Antimicrobial functional ingredients used in hand hygiene products: a cross-sectional survey on regional e-commerce platforms in Wuhan area of China

By: Xintong Chen and  Jun Wang  
Open Access
|Dec 2025

References

  1. Choi K, Sim S, Choi J, Park C, Uhm Y, Lim E, et al. Changes in handwashing and hygiene product usage patterns in Korea before and after the outbreak of COVID-19. Environ Sci Eur. 2021; 33:79. doi: 10.1186/s12302-021-00517-8
  2. Guo J, Liao M, He B, Liu J, Hu X, Yan D, et al. Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on household disinfectant consumption behaviors and related environmental concerns: a questionnaire-based survey in China. J Environ Chem Eng. 2021; 9:106168. doi: 10.1016/j.jece.2021.106168
  3. Farooq H, Saleem S, Haq FU. Antibacterial assessment of commercially available hand sanitizers in Pakistan by EN-1500. Infect Dis Health. 2023; 28:195–201.
  4. Wang M, Hu B, Zhou W, Huang K, Fu J, Zhang A, et al. Enhanced hand-to-mouth exposure from hand sanitizers during the COVID-19 pandemic: a case study of triclosan. Sci Bull (Beijing). 2022; 67:995–8.
  5. Dindarloo K, Aghamolaei T, Ghanbarnejad A, Turki H, Hosein-vandtabar S, Pasalari H, et al. Pattern of disinfectants use and their adverse effects on the consumers after COVID-19 outbreak. J Environ Health Sci Eng. 2020; 18:1301–10.
  6. Li D, Sangion A, Li L. Evaluating consumer exposure to disinfecting chemicals against coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and associated health risks. Environ Int. 2020; 145:106108. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2020.106108
  7. World Health Organization. Recommendations to member states to improve hand hygiene practices to help prevent the transmission of the COVID-19 virus: interim guidance [Internet]. Geneva(Switzerland):World Health Organization; 2020. [cited 2024 Oct 10]. Available from: https://iris.who.int/handle/10665/331661
  8. Booq RY, Alshehri AA, Almughem FA, Zaidan NM, Aburayan WS, Bakr AA, et al. Formulation and evaluation of alcohol-free hand sanitizer gels to prevent the spread of infections during pandemics. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021; 18:6252. doi: 10.3390/ijerph18126252
  9. Raja S, Raja A. Hand sanitizers with possible risks: problems and recommendations. Can J Public Health. 2023; 114:882–3.
  10. Tong Y, Ma S, Zhu Z, Chen X, Wang J. Current progress, opportunities and challenges of developing green disinfectants for the remediation of disinfectant emerging contaminants. Sustain Chem Pharm. 2024; 42:101775. doi: 10.1016/j.scp.2024.101775
  11. Wang X, Cai Y. Compliance with epidemic prevention guidelines among Wuhan citizens under the stressors of the COVID-19 pandemic: a cross-sectional multidistrict comparative analysis. Front Psychol. 2022; 13:808617. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.808617
  12. Prajapati P, Desai H, Chandarana C. Hand sanitizers as a preventive measure in COVID-19 pandemic, its characteristics, and harmful effects: a review. J Egypt Public Health Assoc. 2022; 97:6. doi: 10.1186/s42506-021-00094-x
  13. General Office of the National Health Commission of the People’s Republic of China. Guideline for the use of disinfectants [Internet]. Beijing (China): General Office of the National Health Commission of the People’s Republic of China; 2020. [cited 2024 Oct 10]. Available from: http://www.nhc.gov.cn/xcs/zhengcwj/202002/b9891e8c86d141a08ec45c6a18e21dc2.shtml (in Chinese)
  14. Zhaleh R, Mohammadi H, Boccia F, Firoozzare A, Covino D. Consumption of genetically modified food products and its determinants (case study: edible oil in Mashhad). Foods. 2023; 12:2933. doi: 10.3390/foods12152933
  15. Farid MS, Cavicchi A, Rahman MM, Barua S, Ethen DZ, Happy FA, et al. Assessment of marketing mix associated with consumer’s purchase intention of dairy products in Bangladesh: application of an extended theory of planned behavior. Heliyon. 2023; 9:e16657. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e16657
  16. Wongso Y, Susanti N, Cempena IB. The effect of marketing mix on purchase decision with brand image as intervening variable on Sippol brand hand sanitizer products. Int J Econ Bus Manag Res. 2022; 6:108–26.
  17. Golin AP, Choi D, Ghahary A. Hand sanitizers: a review of ingredients, mechanisms of action, modes of delivery, and efficacy against coronaviruses. Am J Infect Control. 2020; 48:1062–7.
  18. Ministry of Health of the People’s Republic of China. Management standard for labels and instructions of disinfection products [Internet]. Beijing (China): Ministry of Health of the People’s Republic of China; 2005. [cited 2024 Oct 10]. Available from: https://www.nhc.gov.cn/xcs/zhengcwj/202002/5ea4a3616c224df7b3 c2460bfc278577.shtml (in Chinese)
  19. Vazquez L, Celeiro M, Castiñeira-Landeira A, Dagnac T, Llompart M. Development of a solid phase microextraction gas chromatography tandem mass spectrometry methodology for the analysis of sixty personal care products in hydroalcoholic gels – hand sanitizers – in the context of COVID-19 pandemic. Anal Chim Acta. 2022; 1203:339650. doi: 10.1016/j.aca.2022.339650
  20. Nisbar ND, Jamal Khair SK, Bujang NB, Mohd Yusop AY. Determination of ethanol, isopropyl alcohol and methanol in alcohol-based hand sanitiser to ensure product quality, safety and efficacy. Sci Rep. 2023; 13:9478. doi: 10.1038/s41598-023-36283-1
  21. Gloekler LE, de Gandiaga EJ, Binczewski NR, Steimel KG, Massarsky A, Kozal J, et al. Evaluation of the safety and efficacy of hand sanitizer products marketed to children available during the COVID-19 pandemic. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022; 19:14424. doi: 10.3390/ijerph192114424
  22. Manuel CS, Yeomans DJ, Williams JA, Fricker C, Kucera K, Light D, et al. Presence of unsafe chemical impurities, accelerated evaporation of alcohol, and lack of key labeling requirements are risks and concerns for some alcohol-based hand sanitizers and dispenser practices during the COVID-19 pandemic. PLoS One. 2022; 17:e0265519. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0265519
  23. Ochwoto M, Muita L, Talaam K, Wanjala C, Ogeto F, Wachira F, et al. Anti-bacterial efficacy of alcoholic hand rubs in the Kenyan market, 2015. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control. 2017; 6:17. doi: 10.1186/s13756-017-0174-3
  24. Kramer A, Rudolph P, Kampf G, Pittet D. Limited efficacy of alcohol-based hand gels. Lancet. 2002; 359:1489–90.
  25. Suwanchai C, Udompataikul M, Kamanamool N, Kanokrungsee S. A comparative study on the effect of alcohol-based hand sanitizers in spray and gel formulation on the skin: a prospective, randomised, crossover trial. Contact Dermatitis. 2024; 90:394–401.
  26. Larson EL, Cohen B, Baxter KA. Analysis of alcohol-based hand sanitizer delivery systems: efficacy of foam, gel, and wipes against influenza A (H1N1) virus on hands. Am J Infect Control. 2012; 40:806–9.
  27. Fortune Business Insights. COVID-19 analysis. Impact of COVID-19 on hand sanitizer market size, share, industry analysis and regional forecast, 2019-2026 [Internet]. Maharashtra (India): Fortune Business Insights; 2020. [cited 2024 Oct 10]. Available from: https://www.fortunebusinessinsights.com/impact-of-covid-19-on-hand-sanitizer-market-102719
  28. Matatiele P, Southon B, Dabula B, Marageni T, Poongavanum P, Kgarebe B. Assessment of quality of alcohol-based hand sanitizers used in Johannesburg area during the COVID-19 pandemic. Sci Rep. 2022; 12:4231. doi: 10.1038/s41598-022-08117-z
  29. Guo L, Bai H, Botto N, Woodruff CM. Allergens and marketing claims in commercial hand sanitizers: a cross-sectional study. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2022; 87:870–2.
  30. Piparva KG, Dutta S, Singhal S, Shah R. A critical evaluation of contents, labeling, and cost of hand sanitizers marketed in India during COVID-19 pandemic. J Family Med Prim Care. 2024; 13:2289–94.
  31. Ogilvie BH, Solis-Leal A, Lopez JB, Poole BD, Robison RA, Berges BK. Alcohol-free hand sanitizer and other quaternary ammonium disinfectants quickly and effectively inactivate SARS-CoV-2. J Hosp Infect. 2021; 108:142–5.
  32. Aodah AH, Bakr AA, Booq RY, Rahman MJ, Alzahrani DA, Alsulami KA, et al. Preparation and evaluation of benzalkonium chloride hand sanitizer as a potential alternative for alcohol-based hand gels. Saudi Pharm J. 2021; 29:807–14.
  33. Stafford M, Dunn RL, Gupta N, Kakarla R, Kirkpatrick D, Magparangalan D, et al. Quality of new domestic hand sanitizer drug product manufacturers during COVID-19. AAPS J. 2023; 26:7. doi: 10.1208/s12248-023-00877-4
  34. Sreevidya VS, Lenz KA, Svoboda KR, Ma H. Benzalkonium chloride, benzethonium chloride, and chloroxylenol – three replacement antimicrobials are more toxic than triclosan and triclocarban in two model organisms. Environ Pollut. 2018; 235:814–24.
  35. Fuchsman P, Fetters K, O’Connor A, Bock M, Henning M, Brown L, et al. Ecological risk analysis for benzalkonium chloride, benzethonium chloride, and chloroxylenol in US disinfecting and sanitizing products. Environ Toxicol Chem. 2022; 41:3095–115.
  36. Raps S, Bahr L, Karkossa I, Rossol M, von Bergen M, Schubert K. Triclosan and its alternatives, especially chlorhexidine, modulate macrophage immune response with distinct modes of action. Sci Total Environ. 2024; 914:169650. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.169650
  37. Liao M, Wei S, Zhao J, Wang J, Fan G. Risks of benzalkonium chlorides as emerging contaminants in the environment and possible control strategies from the perspective of ecopharmaco-vigilance. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2023; 266:115613. doi: 10.1016/j. ecoenv.2023.115613
  38. Alghamdi HA. A need to combat COVID-19; Herbal disinfection techniques, formulations and preparations of human health friendly hand sanitizers. Saudi J Biol Sci. 2021; 28:3943–7.
  39. Tan J, Kuang H, Wang C, Liu J, Pang Q, Xie Q, et al. Human exposure and health risk assessment of an increasingly used antibacterial alternative in personal care products: chloroxylenol. Sci Total Environ. 2021; 786:147524. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.147524
  40. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Consumer updates: skip the antibacterial soap? You can skip it, use plain soap and water [Internet]. Rockville (U.S.):U.S. Food and Drug Administration;2019. [cited 2024 Oct 10]. Available from: https://www.fda.gov/consumers/consumer-updates/antibacterial-soap-you-can-skip-it-use-plain-soap-and-water
  41. Tong Y, Zhu Z, Chen W, Wang F, Hu X, Wang J. Knowledge, attitudes and practice regarding environmental friendly disinfectants for household use among residents of China in the post-pandemic period. Front Public Health. 2023; 11:1161339. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2023.1161339
  42. Rundle CW, Hu S, Presley CL, Dunnick CA. Triclosen and its alternatives in antibacterial soaps. Dermatitis. 2019; 30:352–7.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/abm-2025-0037 | Journal eISSN: 1875-855X | Journal ISSN: 1905-7415
Language: English
Page range: 383 - 393
Published on: Dec 31, 2025
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services
Publication frequency: 6 issues per year

© 2025 Xintong Chen, Jun Wang, published by Chulalongkorn University
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.