Figure 1.
Figure 2.
![Ground floor view (dimensions in cm), adopted from Ferdyn-Grygierek and Grygierek [26]](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/64706f4783f1392090d6977e/j_acee-2019-025_fig_002.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKAWZLPCFX%2F20251213%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20251213T180021Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEFcaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJHMEUCIQCN431mXGwhysK%2Bbl3twxfJte4xRQNj0HO%2FDWDzclXdrAIge8xJBnhDzNldHDqZbLWS54BEHWE3NpsA%2F4Rtb31ltU8qvQUIIBACGgw5NjMxMzQyODk5NDAiDJTMjwW5W5z5nbIGsyqaBZ1mj%2B9419QOXQO3rSsk5q9zeUVOc3u0At4zM1dk81OB4XWkdI6NRNxxuiZCN%2Fiz3h1%2BUnSqqiFJvwg8tapCAYfm0UPlvM5W2itqJotvMJwV%2FudyPu35hStReU8dhM%2Bu95RSF%2FnbpqevcjVY4hKGPVh8NiqMjqt6OoTPbWEEI6TZyQBngn1LiE4wZqmhxQa4dSD6LB3WUsXpK6DYibpFIiIr5an1JIhizbscL1weFZLf0kze%2FjZ4WzmT0pJlbyfevOAbDmbYy%2BBEPcfe8VeUN8Rx3I98113cmQ3XdPuIxRIOozfuyFWR6fRyFqs6FScNHYSoWQ1sFC3U9PT7EN5lZMtm9aU9wN1JsVilj65CAgpoTNb2AiHyBf7H6AOAxwy8e%2Fh5XDXs0gil%2F4A1Lt1kyhLXKnzb%2BwmzbgsLRQ3xOiskQWekIGxzLYluMC%2FKTGnkMK%2FVqo4nepRog9iM9MGGu6dE9DGRtICXPXlAgIxkmE%2BEcbBYRUnhyh758u3pSgzPUSYiGyVTTCoPn67QsN9EkRqkdbpCX1IGT%2FKwuGgDPNYXWve5NECr%2F%2FUTslfXetS7cKNLLQy6O7Lz%2F50KIn7c47tQ4i%2Fa2%2B0P8KXEx9ZTkxRMAKGChN72a7hPST4XBgIYFW7vSFxRQgGzW7kBzgkDROy3ELV%2BpE8UmAqcZVVE00LEbpMsF82m1GsaCRL675DsPfvl2qaYDhW8SVbCK3dciHYN8kwV3mW%2Bnhhk6dgESclWWNXhCkB2wfuWmNYDjN6SqPY946jfWg4%2FsvhI57BHDJcIFlnMWM9n987C9dnAWeQDoatqaODk2kwfNBP0YkiwI2k9ceJRnnH50Ow0EVGvcx%2FYdMJKcSW%2BxM3%2F9qYXch0lRCPLP%2F9SoAfS2zCvh%2FbJBjqxAQ9odCkk%2BNf6CcKN77fUEgeHEzmLQABsYKLb96JgKkGROmAHiH2c1l%2BWbUAQju7taQ0464Se2HUOw9IPO%2FcMBZW70ULuMmbmnxVhoQcr1P7xnGGyV7S7H8P8CAltL2i%2Bk2pUOGTVob94QjIKc63aQaUXKi44h4ACNDvuASjsIJux96Lz8C7aZocv8aFh%2F0klB9nzI9Li9QE60JuG1QN81P%2BNUgn5xdAja%2BxoN%2FEA5pzj%2BA%3D%3D&X-Amz-Signature=4b9be52f1dea76760b2ddfacd70c23c9d478ebecac4e74bc2db3d025c7b9149a&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Figure 3.
Optimal results
| Case | Reference building | Building after optimization | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| GA | PSO | TLBO | |||
| Type of glazing | G10 | G05 | G05 | G05 | |
| Window area, m2 | W1 | 3.375 | 5.250 | 3.000 | 3.000 |
| W2 | 3.375 | 4.500 | 0 | 6.375 | |
| W3 | 3.375 | 4.125 | 6.375 | 0 | |
| W4 | 2.250 | 3.375 | 2.250 | 2.250 | |
| W5 | 1.875 | 4.125 | 2.250 | 3.375 | |
| W6 | 1.875 | 0 | 1.500 | 0 | |
| W7 | 3.375 | 3.375 | 3.375 | 3.375 | |
| W8 | 1.875 | 3.000 | 2.250 | 0 | |
| W9 | 1.875 | 1.125 | 1.500 | 3.375 | |
| Insulation, cm | external walls | 12 | 15 | 18 | 18 |
| ground floor | 5 | 15 | 10 | 12 | |
| ceiling | 20 | 22 | 28 | 28 | |
| Building orientation, deg (clockwise) | 0 | 180 | 247.5 | 247.5 | |
| Sum of windows area, m2 | 23.25 | 28.875 | 22.500 | 21.750 | |
| Sum of glazing area, m2 | 15.711 | 19.592 | 15.396 | 14.941 | |
| LCC, PLN | 38 408 | 32 611 | 31 760 | 31 299 | |
| LCC savings, % | 0 | 15 | 17 | 19 | |
| Heating demand, kWh/m2 | 52.6 | 32.1 | 30.9 | 29.1 | |
| Cooling demand, kWh/m2 | 9.7 | 19.1 | 13.2 | 13.4 | |
| Total energy savings, % | 0 | 18 | 29 | 32 | |
Cost data for design variables and options used for the optimization analysis
| Design variable | Options | Cost * |
|---|---|---|
| Glazing type for window | G10 (U
glass
=1.0 W/m2 K, SHGC=0.49) | 148 PLN/m2
|
| Windows area | Height: 1.5 m | 0 PLN for all options |
| Insulation | ||
| Ground floor: polystyrene (λ = 0.031 W/mK) | 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 15 cm (thickness) | 223 PLN/m3 |
| External wall: polystyrene (λ = 0.031 W/mK) | 12, 15, 18, 20, 22, 25 cm (thickness) | 198 PLN/m3 |
| Ceiling to unheated attic: mineral wool (λ = 0.038 W/mK) | 20, 22, 25, 28, 30, 35 cm (thickness) | 1.36 PLN/m2 for 1 cm of thickness |
| Azimuth (orientation of the building relatively to the north) | 0–337.5 with step 22.5 | 0 PLN for all options |
| Additionally included the costs of window frame and installation and cost of external wall construction | ||
Characteristics of the reference building
| Number of occupants | 4 |
| Number of heated floors | 1 |
| Area of heated floor | 150 m2 |
| Floor-to-floor height | 2.6 m |
| External wall construction | Brick with polystyrene insulation, U = 0.22 W/m2K |
| Ceiling construction | Ferroconcrete with mineral wool insulation, U = 0.18 W/m2K |
| Roof construction | Covered with ceramic tiles and uninsulated |
| Ground floor construction | Concrete with polystyrene insulation, U = 0.29 W/m2K |
| Windows construction | Double glazed, PCV frame, U glass = 1.00 W/m2K |
| Opaque external wall | 102.15 m2 |
| Window area | 23.25 m2 |
| Ventilation | Natural |
| Cooling System | Split system air conditioner (electricity) |
| Heating System | Central heating with radiators (natural gas boiler) |