Figure 1.
Figure 2.
![Ground floor view (dimensions in cm), adopted from Ferdyn-Grygierek and Grygierek [26]](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/64706f4783f1392090d6977e/j_acee-2019-025_fig_002.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKOEB6WTWL%2F20260221%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260221T040401Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjENj%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FwEaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJGMEQCIDx8SuolTmC6tev%2FFSTPI3eOcLfNeRIBW5P0638OP%2Bj9AiAZ0M0erSbcmVRN6Ly8knn8c8q%2FGk%2BQdwlRYHE2rHPLoCrGBQih%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F8BEAIaDDk2MzEzNDI4OTk0MCIMDQXv1nUcYbB448dhKpoFZVY58Q4qhGf4OHPN1zzUGaTKcfSdeF2QssByoNrOKLWvG5Iwfpr7xxLkWpzjYb9EsdFfzfkZTrjd6C8Amnza7QcUr2PHCLetnmv%2FMM6wPIiuhwxPtvHFFVIGvbeg%2Bx1pNftkPoPiQiUNAOEmqpR%2FSN4byaa56J5uYjSrFJH6a53zlUC5snFLrZPDLy8WSR5fdOzhx3gOM2Fmz42H7hHrSnge9gSNDngCrn%2FAGzmrGMh%2FnT6Jm8aMA1YYPtR4vaYyHbZIstV5IA24EeLxhNz12vYAC%2FkUUTX%2BkuZDC%2Bb5CWVQ0sCW0cW731RlFbL%2BVXIpSxh%2FJv1RvWSenAMp17cYEwKUApDYUDom7D9vfjw9hNbfIf7tj80Int2h6WYEdvAbeBSN3vWclRslLCPVjjs0nrON0xMZ29%2Fb%2B9aIlijHtaOnLPdSgfdFZePqhthTeBhYCxnw1nLJ5DZ3EsVz6MPvRVv6tXubu6SucjYcfydrlWwHGNsIAHwdLwxIpoqLSBwMg%2FmIEVUadpYjjrTNPx3GJLNDP9dxt5SxxI1HAlFdkbfFSNYw07ru4ukX81gfCeFpfa3pjpuNwCIIylRGCVwW8Dhn9wnsR%2BjnVb8LZegJhluUKaORVHGskMYxsDH9%2BCSOn%2FBbeqP0gLEC%2FlQAAdp56ptAcczv6o7teB%2FKcLwaERU%2FJH03dVKiFUE5Ehs3IvFzksSdhTkUZgzAG%2BIgfsecY%2Fz1Nr3ztiwrOiuppux4SHzEdzwg60uhFuh3xfKcN5BUnq62sY1jWDvaxMer7vbDW%2Bwynk%2BwuD3o2M%2FBBIXXNcT1gNLtV1Feza6DQKVPT%2FsDKl2ISymeXKwGLD%2FX8lhtLTg10ABXCxcRA9B2HYm8t07aqbq1kUc546WSMIPi48wGOrIBpkXjhgW9LIGbMTGOuEQ8rQL7BkvU5zxKXYGwb3PQ5gmUWBkNjfSOvMYWk93XF02MT9OTFy5lzCJJk2e%2FmrUSd3SEOZVQmrKXEoJ1OmtObz1PJfKhyBFGtQuT0JHM%2F2KX%2Fx2GvckwSjfW7aHdDk%2BitbtogJEVcgRTMXHhlhLIauy2rE4wMj54yqMUdiiALxCTFBYKjdlYuUs1jrZF%2BZTAa5deTe8E2F9cvKddJCTho%2FaNwQ%3D%3D&X-Amz-Signature=465c5f95165ad2569251068a24a76342274b58a987d6ef2348b792f29cc2d507&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Figure 3.
Optimal results
| Case | Reference building | Building after optimization | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| GA | PSO | TLBO | |||
| Type of glazing | G10 | G05 | G05 | G05 | |
| Window area, m2 | W1 | 3.375 | 5.250 | 3.000 | 3.000 |
| W2 | 3.375 | 4.500 | 0 | 6.375 | |
| W3 | 3.375 | 4.125 | 6.375 | 0 | |
| W4 | 2.250 | 3.375 | 2.250 | 2.250 | |
| W5 | 1.875 | 4.125 | 2.250 | 3.375 | |
| W6 | 1.875 | 0 | 1.500 | 0 | |
| W7 | 3.375 | 3.375 | 3.375 | 3.375 | |
| W8 | 1.875 | 3.000 | 2.250 | 0 | |
| W9 | 1.875 | 1.125 | 1.500 | 3.375 | |
| Insulation, cm | external walls | 12 | 15 | 18 | 18 |
| ground floor | 5 | 15 | 10 | 12 | |
| ceiling | 20 | 22 | 28 | 28 | |
| Building orientation, deg (clockwise) | 0 | 180 | 247.5 | 247.5 | |
| Sum of windows area, m2 | 23.25 | 28.875 | 22.500 | 21.750 | |
| Sum of glazing area, m2 | 15.711 | 19.592 | 15.396 | 14.941 | |
| LCC, PLN | 38 408 | 32 611 | 31 760 | 31 299 | |
| LCC savings, % | 0 | 15 | 17 | 19 | |
| Heating demand, kWh/m2 | 52.6 | 32.1 | 30.9 | 29.1 | |
| Cooling demand, kWh/m2 | 9.7 | 19.1 | 13.2 | 13.4 | |
| Total energy savings, % | 0 | 18 | 29 | 32 | |
Cost data for design variables and options used for the optimization analysis
| Design variable | Options | Cost * |
|---|---|---|
| Glazing type for window | G10 (U
glass
=1.0 W/m2 K, SHGC=0.49) | 148 PLN/m2
|
| Windows area | Height: 1.5 m | 0 PLN for all options |
| Insulation | ||
| Ground floor: polystyrene (λ = 0.031 W/mK) | 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 15 cm (thickness) | 223 PLN/m3 |
| External wall: polystyrene (λ = 0.031 W/mK) | 12, 15, 18, 20, 22, 25 cm (thickness) | 198 PLN/m3 |
| Ceiling to unheated attic: mineral wool (λ = 0.038 W/mK) | 20, 22, 25, 28, 30, 35 cm (thickness) | 1.36 PLN/m2 for 1 cm of thickness |
| Azimuth (orientation of the building relatively to the north) | 0–337.5 with step 22.5 | 0 PLN for all options |
| Additionally included the costs of window frame and installation and cost of external wall construction | ||
Characteristics of the reference building
| Number of occupants | 4 |
| Number of heated floors | 1 |
| Area of heated floor | 150 m2 |
| Floor-to-floor height | 2.6 m |
| External wall construction | Brick with polystyrene insulation, U = 0.22 W/m2K |
| Ceiling construction | Ferroconcrete with mineral wool insulation, U = 0.18 W/m2K |
| Roof construction | Covered with ceramic tiles and uninsulated |
| Ground floor construction | Concrete with polystyrene insulation, U = 0.29 W/m2K |
| Windows construction | Double glazed, PCV frame, U glass = 1.00 W/m2K |
| Opaque external wall | 102.15 m2 |
| Window area | 23.25 m2 |
| Ventilation | Natural |
| Cooling System | Split system air conditioner (electricity) |
| Heating System | Central heating with radiators (natural gas boiler) |