Fig. 1.
![Methane oxidation and carbon assimilation pathways conducted by type I and II methanothrophs. Explanations: pMMO – particulate form of methane monooxygenase; sMMO – cytoplasmic methane monooxygenase; cytC – cytochrome c; MDH – methanol dehydrogenase; FADH – formaldehyde dehydrogenase; FDH – formate dehydrogenase. Based on Zhang et al. [45].](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/6470923671e4585e08aa02f2/j_PM-2019.58.3.329_fig_001.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKPD7DO3RW%2F20251211%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20251211T091541Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEB0aDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJIMEYCIQCHH1Ft%2BnsekTrSd9fFl%2B%2FSQCxLLYRNaXLCIO1XfotP8AIhAKwTB8oux7yuk8ZbZzKjPwmNxiy5qQarbGIcJ5qQ84RTKsYFCOb%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FwEQAhoMOTYzMTM0Mjg5OTQwIgyF3Sk5hde3jE131F4qmgXuzwu9nCerGzXuV2%2FB5RWy3ED2Fnjz1gokoE5HIdBHeYEqgdbwzd0xvThcwlK1Q9NAsHolepTzWcvHKsVhxgzVewfZe%2BkRE2hv2PYAd9wPkOiSzapWMJ5KJiXniDjDjFt8E1Xz2pK8j7gqP4hhnnfVdYysvANGCVTS55GuZ24xiGUDZ0MqbD4lltzQch%2BHuCDzqT%2BbdOQI8k3551k8o2CXfs%2Bc1ieQKvMlYnzKsn3oaYVcGHSmHwjCSV7Ind2CJS01tEHR%2FVvPR6SBMQ4aJrsO%2B%2BlLM7eokUsurKCCax5ExbiDhVY7fNb85s8AzSvFKNyJEkAVpUQXfDNAVZ0EyIbstfwJRQ7fy6O8GDYjEKrIZZu948nlsHsEIzoxqOQLUfyzsW9Wc3UOIncIp80Und6TEb12M31tTLWX3%2BYrjrhBnHDdDJzQkJQnz96E%2Flp1MsT8IcmNIabSX2N58yE3txByCVhFv%2BX8YKwoLSj9auNM62kvHPSAcM05gepKeh6YhIhZAhupah24m0%2B%2FN9Wug%2Bp8yW6PNuCNAkkli7BxWeSYVc4OSTFVjiU2Y%2BCVVRja0ax%2BG%2BHVIW0mlnpH7pStjjN3DJbfpUE1ovXUvDvzLohi2LurgD6IgrzCRXkU9Tn%2Bibb7AVNZ6wjaL%2BvR2jzY5CFELGckY1kFGUf%2F56e27Pnk3lDhPScoijr4OcEAgfO8g5cMWVUyY31SgL7IHQWCRXSGrAQsRiP0qybz02TebeUsLogVP67V9BnSXgmPNFZvlBgTr5EjpTa0fzTTF76wBPE21TFu1OUKKBWjjU5LY41HVFCp%2BDMVbYCBCM1N28dpm657QufUsTNou1K8Yd70JePuVu9kE%2BxFTynKveYqiy%2B669iFTHbckttXkpYw0aPpyQY6sAHwHYAjPujBNItyESfO8wR1y%2F7C8r3ATn0jW8a71Ipk3cJfDBxa7wN00MC3zK35roRyb5os6%2FiWwbcBZFYD9TsQUIvhWM9pEKLrb7VzLbJZVazXsq1vbTtEvQa29ezp61kx%2BZgLL4SFsi0woL0yLeosu42YL2pj20UlF5mMnjFz99rhi9MRQRJYqpHIrdtuxD3%2Bc%2Fc0D2NggKUE5ZSn5P8e0iwBR7UQDd2End5Yc005yw%3D%3D&X-Amz-Signature=3613ad57ad2603b2d2096975333d22cfed41f7b1fb108ab3bc864fb0265fb0d6&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Fig. 2.
![The course of the PHB biosynthesis including the enzymes catalysing subsequent reaction steps and the phbCAB operon genes encoding them. Based on Madison et al. [17].](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/6470923671e4585e08aa02f2/j_PM-2019.58.3.329_fig_002.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKPD7DO3RW%2F20251211%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20251211T091541Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEB0aDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJIMEYCIQCHH1Ft%2BnsekTrSd9fFl%2B%2FSQCxLLYRNaXLCIO1XfotP8AIhAKwTB8oux7yuk8ZbZzKjPwmNxiy5qQarbGIcJ5qQ84RTKsYFCOb%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FwEQAhoMOTYzMTM0Mjg5OTQwIgyF3Sk5hde3jE131F4qmgXuzwu9nCerGzXuV2%2FB5RWy3ED2Fnjz1gokoE5HIdBHeYEqgdbwzd0xvThcwlK1Q9NAsHolepTzWcvHKsVhxgzVewfZe%2BkRE2hv2PYAd9wPkOiSzapWMJ5KJiXniDjDjFt8E1Xz2pK8j7gqP4hhnnfVdYysvANGCVTS55GuZ24xiGUDZ0MqbD4lltzQch%2BHuCDzqT%2BbdOQI8k3551k8o2CXfs%2Bc1ieQKvMlYnzKsn3oaYVcGHSmHwjCSV7Ind2CJS01tEHR%2FVvPR6SBMQ4aJrsO%2B%2BlLM7eokUsurKCCax5ExbiDhVY7fNb85s8AzSvFKNyJEkAVpUQXfDNAVZ0EyIbstfwJRQ7fy6O8GDYjEKrIZZu948nlsHsEIzoxqOQLUfyzsW9Wc3UOIncIp80Und6TEb12M31tTLWX3%2BYrjrhBnHDdDJzQkJQnz96E%2Flp1MsT8IcmNIabSX2N58yE3txByCVhFv%2BX8YKwoLSj9auNM62kvHPSAcM05gepKeh6YhIhZAhupah24m0%2B%2FN9Wug%2Bp8yW6PNuCNAkkli7BxWeSYVc4OSTFVjiU2Y%2BCVVRja0ax%2BG%2BHVIW0mlnpH7pStjjN3DJbfpUE1ovXUvDvzLohi2LurgD6IgrzCRXkU9Tn%2Bibb7AVNZ6wjaL%2BvR2jzY5CFELGckY1kFGUf%2F56e27Pnk3lDhPScoijr4OcEAgfO8g5cMWVUyY31SgL7IHQWCRXSGrAQsRiP0qybz02TebeUsLogVP67V9BnSXgmPNFZvlBgTr5EjpTa0fzTTF76wBPE21TFu1OUKKBWjjU5LY41HVFCp%2BDMVbYCBCM1N28dpm657QufUsTNou1K8Yd70JePuVu9kE%2BxFTynKveYqiy%2B669iFTHbckttXkpYw0aPpyQY6sAHwHYAjPujBNItyESfO8wR1y%2F7C8r3ATn0jW8a71Ipk3cJfDBxa7wN00MC3zK35roRyb5os6%2FiWwbcBZFYD9TsQUIvhWM9pEKLrb7VzLbJZVazXsq1vbTtEvQa29ezp61kx%2BZgLL4SFsi0woL0yLeosu42YL2pj20UlF5mMnjFz99rhi9MRQRJYqpHIrdtuxD3%2Bc%2Fc0D2NggKUE5ZSn5P8e0iwBR7UQDd2End5Yc005yw%3D%3D&X-Amz-Signature=a4a5dda35eafed576f8e48c28d50cbf9758fe10b561b577dba5118e4eb992829&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Fig. 3.
![Medical accessories made of PHB copolymers. Explanation of the presented elements: absorbable surgical threads (A), screws and plates stabilising the bones (B), membranes used in dentistry (C), dressing nets without admixtures – on the left and soaked with medicaments – on the right (D). Based on Bonartsev et al. [4].](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/6470923671e4585e08aa02f2/j_PM-2019.58.3.329_fig_003.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKPD7DO3RW%2F20251211%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20251211T091541Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEB0aDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJIMEYCIQCHH1Ft%2BnsekTrSd9fFl%2B%2FSQCxLLYRNaXLCIO1XfotP8AIhAKwTB8oux7yuk8ZbZzKjPwmNxiy5qQarbGIcJ5qQ84RTKsYFCOb%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FwEQAhoMOTYzMTM0Mjg5OTQwIgyF3Sk5hde3jE131F4qmgXuzwu9nCerGzXuV2%2FB5RWy3ED2Fnjz1gokoE5HIdBHeYEqgdbwzd0xvThcwlK1Q9NAsHolepTzWcvHKsVhxgzVewfZe%2BkRE2hv2PYAd9wPkOiSzapWMJ5KJiXniDjDjFt8E1Xz2pK8j7gqP4hhnnfVdYysvANGCVTS55GuZ24xiGUDZ0MqbD4lltzQch%2BHuCDzqT%2BbdOQI8k3551k8o2CXfs%2Bc1ieQKvMlYnzKsn3oaYVcGHSmHwjCSV7Ind2CJS01tEHR%2FVvPR6SBMQ4aJrsO%2B%2BlLM7eokUsurKCCax5ExbiDhVY7fNb85s8AzSvFKNyJEkAVpUQXfDNAVZ0EyIbstfwJRQ7fy6O8GDYjEKrIZZu948nlsHsEIzoxqOQLUfyzsW9Wc3UOIncIp80Und6TEb12M31tTLWX3%2BYrjrhBnHDdDJzQkJQnz96E%2Flp1MsT8IcmNIabSX2N58yE3txByCVhFv%2BX8YKwoLSj9auNM62kvHPSAcM05gepKeh6YhIhZAhupah24m0%2B%2FN9Wug%2Bp8yW6PNuCNAkkli7BxWeSYVc4OSTFVjiU2Y%2BCVVRja0ax%2BG%2BHVIW0mlnpH7pStjjN3DJbfpUE1ovXUvDvzLohi2LurgD6IgrzCRXkU9Tn%2Bibb7AVNZ6wjaL%2BvR2jzY5CFELGckY1kFGUf%2F56e27Pnk3lDhPScoijr4OcEAgfO8g5cMWVUyY31SgL7IHQWCRXSGrAQsRiP0qybz02TebeUsLogVP67V9BnSXgmPNFZvlBgTr5EjpTa0fzTTF76wBPE21TFu1OUKKBWjjU5LY41HVFCp%2BDMVbYCBCM1N28dpm657QufUsTNou1K8Yd70JePuVu9kE%2BxFTynKveYqiy%2B669iFTHbckttXkpYw0aPpyQY6sAHwHYAjPujBNItyESfO8wR1y%2F7C8r3ATn0jW8a71Ipk3cJfDBxa7wN00MC3zK35roRyb5os6%2FiWwbcBZFYD9TsQUIvhWM9pEKLrb7VzLbJZVazXsq1vbTtEvQa29ezp61kx%2BZgLL4SFsi0woL0yLeosu42YL2pj20UlF5mMnjFz99rhi9MRQRJYqpHIrdtuxD3%2Bc%2Fc0D2NggKUE5ZSn5P8e0iwBR7UQDd2End5Yc005yw%3D%3D&X-Amz-Signature=c2e852a4a37dec0421e49ef229c100e16189ba6e4ca71bac0d8586f8e30208b4&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Fig. 4.
![Fragments of the PHB film after two months of incubation in soil suspension with different nitrate content. Explanation of the presented elements: Undecomposed film – comparative test (A), film decomposed in anaerobic conditions without addition of nitrates (B), degradation in aerobic conditions without addition of nitrates (C), aerobic degradation with addition of nitrates (D). Based on Bonartsev et al. [4].](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/6470923671e4585e08aa02f2/j_PM-2019.58.3.329_fig_004.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKPD7DO3RW%2F20251211%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20251211T091541Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEB0aDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJIMEYCIQCHH1Ft%2BnsekTrSd9fFl%2B%2FSQCxLLYRNaXLCIO1XfotP8AIhAKwTB8oux7yuk8ZbZzKjPwmNxiy5qQarbGIcJ5qQ84RTKsYFCOb%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FwEQAhoMOTYzMTM0Mjg5OTQwIgyF3Sk5hde3jE131F4qmgXuzwu9nCerGzXuV2%2FB5RWy3ED2Fnjz1gokoE5HIdBHeYEqgdbwzd0xvThcwlK1Q9NAsHolepTzWcvHKsVhxgzVewfZe%2BkRE2hv2PYAd9wPkOiSzapWMJ5KJiXniDjDjFt8E1Xz2pK8j7gqP4hhnnfVdYysvANGCVTS55GuZ24xiGUDZ0MqbD4lltzQch%2BHuCDzqT%2BbdOQI8k3551k8o2CXfs%2Bc1ieQKvMlYnzKsn3oaYVcGHSmHwjCSV7Ind2CJS01tEHR%2FVvPR6SBMQ4aJrsO%2B%2BlLM7eokUsurKCCax5ExbiDhVY7fNb85s8AzSvFKNyJEkAVpUQXfDNAVZ0EyIbstfwJRQ7fy6O8GDYjEKrIZZu948nlsHsEIzoxqOQLUfyzsW9Wc3UOIncIp80Und6TEb12M31tTLWX3%2BYrjrhBnHDdDJzQkJQnz96E%2Flp1MsT8IcmNIabSX2N58yE3txByCVhFv%2BX8YKwoLSj9auNM62kvHPSAcM05gepKeh6YhIhZAhupah24m0%2B%2FN9Wug%2Bp8yW6PNuCNAkkli7BxWeSYVc4OSTFVjiU2Y%2BCVVRja0ax%2BG%2BHVIW0mlnpH7pStjjN3DJbfpUE1ovXUvDvzLohi2LurgD6IgrzCRXkU9Tn%2Bibb7AVNZ6wjaL%2BvR2jzY5CFELGckY1kFGUf%2F56e27Pnk3lDhPScoijr4OcEAgfO8g5cMWVUyY31SgL7IHQWCRXSGrAQsRiP0qybz02TebeUsLogVP67V9BnSXgmPNFZvlBgTr5EjpTa0fzTTF76wBPE21TFu1OUKKBWjjU5LY41HVFCp%2BDMVbYCBCM1N28dpm657QufUsTNou1K8Yd70JePuVu9kE%2BxFTynKveYqiy%2B669iFTHbckttXkpYw0aPpyQY6sAHwHYAjPujBNItyESfO8wR1y%2F7C8r3ATn0jW8a71Ipk3cJfDBxa7wN00MC3zK35roRyb5os6%2FiWwbcBZFYD9TsQUIvhWM9pEKLrb7VzLbJZVazXsq1vbTtEvQa29ezp61kx%2BZgLL4SFsi0woL0yLeosu42YL2pj20UlF5mMnjFz99rhi9MRQRJYqpHIrdtuxD3%2Bc%2Fc0D2NggKUE5ZSn5P8e0iwBR7UQDd2End5Yc005yw%3D%3D&X-Amz-Signature=11e345e77d7403565e467f281424c2bd8ef9bb89490777096d620ee5fede877a&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Fig. 5.
![The course of degradation of the PHB films of different molecular weights: 150, 300, 450, 1000 kDa. PHB degradation took place in vivo, the film was stored for 90 days immersed in phosphate buffer (pH = 7.4) at 70°C. Based on Bonartsev et al. [4].](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/6470923671e4585e08aa02f2/j_PM-2019.58.3.329_fig_005.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKPD7DO3RW%2F20251211%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20251211T091541Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEB0aDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJIMEYCIQCHH1Ft%2BnsekTrSd9fFl%2B%2FSQCxLLYRNaXLCIO1XfotP8AIhAKwTB8oux7yuk8ZbZzKjPwmNxiy5qQarbGIcJ5qQ84RTKsYFCOb%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FwEQAhoMOTYzMTM0Mjg5OTQwIgyF3Sk5hde3jE131F4qmgXuzwu9nCerGzXuV2%2FB5RWy3ED2Fnjz1gokoE5HIdBHeYEqgdbwzd0xvThcwlK1Q9NAsHolepTzWcvHKsVhxgzVewfZe%2BkRE2hv2PYAd9wPkOiSzapWMJ5KJiXniDjDjFt8E1Xz2pK8j7gqP4hhnnfVdYysvANGCVTS55GuZ24xiGUDZ0MqbD4lltzQch%2BHuCDzqT%2BbdOQI8k3551k8o2CXfs%2Bc1ieQKvMlYnzKsn3oaYVcGHSmHwjCSV7Ind2CJS01tEHR%2FVvPR6SBMQ4aJrsO%2B%2BlLM7eokUsurKCCax5ExbiDhVY7fNb85s8AzSvFKNyJEkAVpUQXfDNAVZ0EyIbstfwJRQ7fy6O8GDYjEKrIZZu948nlsHsEIzoxqOQLUfyzsW9Wc3UOIncIp80Und6TEb12M31tTLWX3%2BYrjrhBnHDdDJzQkJQnz96E%2Flp1MsT8IcmNIabSX2N58yE3txByCVhFv%2BX8YKwoLSj9auNM62kvHPSAcM05gepKeh6YhIhZAhupah24m0%2B%2FN9Wug%2Bp8yW6PNuCNAkkli7BxWeSYVc4OSTFVjiU2Y%2BCVVRja0ax%2BG%2BHVIW0mlnpH7pStjjN3DJbfpUE1ovXUvDvzLohi2LurgD6IgrzCRXkU9Tn%2Bibb7AVNZ6wjaL%2BvR2jzY5CFELGckY1kFGUf%2F56e27Pnk3lDhPScoijr4OcEAgfO8g5cMWVUyY31SgL7IHQWCRXSGrAQsRiP0qybz02TebeUsLogVP67V9BnSXgmPNFZvlBgTr5EjpTa0fzTTF76wBPE21TFu1OUKKBWjjU5LY41HVFCp%2BDMVbYCBCM1N28dpm657QufUsTNou1K8Yd70JePuVu9kE%2BxFTynKveYqiy%2B669iFTHbckttXkpYw0aPpyQY6sAHwHYAjPujBNItyESfO8wR1y%2F7C8r3ATn0jW8a71Ipk3cJfDBxa7wN00MC3zK35roRyb5os6%2FiWwbcBZFYD9TsQUIvhWM9pEKLrb7VzLbJZVazXsq1vbTtEvQa29ezp61kx%2BZgLL4SFsi0woL0yLeosu42YL2pj20UlF5mMnjFz99rhi9MRQRJYqpHIrdtuxD3%2Bc%2Fc0D2NggKUE5ZSn5P8e0iwBR7UQDd2End5Yc005yw%3D%3D&X-Amz-Signature=ae050cf2049a0e7955e1f44ac62ef2e5e90299b1e6cc5152b1aa1767ed628873&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Summary of the PHB polymer properties
| Chemical resistance | Value | Unit |
| Acids | moderate | |
| Strong alkalis | poor | |
| Alcohols | moderate | |
| Oils and grease | good | |
| Physical properties | ||
| Density | 1.25 | g/cm3 |
| Resistance to UV radiation | good | |
| Mechanical properties | ||
| Tensile strength | 40 | MPa |
| Modulus of elasticity | 3.5 | GPa |
| Elongation at break | 10 | % |
| Impact strength (impact strength test according to Izod) | 35–60 | J/m2 |
| Thermal properties | ||
| Melting point | 170–180 | °C |
| Glass transition temperature | 0–5 | °C |
| Electrical properties | ||
| Electrical resistance (specific) | 1016 | Ohm/cm |
| Dielectric constant | 3.0 | MHz |