Veteran Pathways to Homelessness and Housing Solutions: A Scoping Review

Background

Transitioning out of the Australian Defence Force (ADF) into civilian life is a complex and multidimensional experience, shaped by veterans’ social, environmental, and personal circumstances. Successful transitions are supported by strong social connections and community engagement (Keeling, 2018); however, many veterans face significant challenges that disrupt these connections. Challenges, including cultural dissonance, loss of identity, and difficulty rebuilding social networks, can lead to social isolation and poor mental health outcomes (Guthrie-Gower & Wilson-Menzfeld, 2022; Shepherd et al., 2021). Crucially, these transition-related difficulties are not only detrimental to wellbeing but also contribute to housing instability and, in severe cases, homelessness.

The Royal Commission into Defence and Veteran Suicide (2024a) identified disconnection and isolation as key factors in deteriorating mental health, including suicidality. These issues often stem from the stark contrast between military and civilian life, compounded by trauma, multiple deployments, and the loss of comradeship (Smith & True, 2014; Wilson et al., 2019). Social isolation, which often persists long after discharge, has been linked to reduced wellbeing (Shankar et al., 2015) and increased life dissatisfaction (Biddle et al., 2022). The absence of ‘mateship’ in civilian life can intensify feelings of loneliness, which, if unresolved, may lead to depression, suicidality, and physical health decline (Heinrich & Gullone, 2006; Holt-Lunstad et al., 2015). Moreover, disengagement from social support networks fosters alienation and a diminished sense of belonging, both factors that significantly heighten the risk of homelessness (Guthrie-Gower & Wilson-Menzfeld, 2022). Veterans with service-acquired disabilities are particularly vulnerable in this regard, often experiencing heightened psychological distress following discharge (Bond et al., 2022; Vogt et al., 2019).

Veteran homelessness in Australia is a growing concern. Housing All Australians (HAA; 2023) reported that 5.3% of veterans experience homelessness with up from 5.2% in the Australian Government’s earlier report (Hilferty et al., 2019). Veterans are disproportionately affected compared to the general population, with one-quarter classified as chronically homeless, facing prolonged housing instability alongside mental illness, substance abuse, or physical disability (Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute, 2019).

The current landscape of housing instability has contributed to a global housing crisis driven by chronic underinvestment in housing, historically low rental vacancy rates, and limited housing supply (Freemark, 2025). These challenges are further intensified by broader economic pressures, including the cost-of-living crisis, and rapid population growth, which place additional strain on housing systems and disproportionately affect vulnerable populations such as veterans (Homelessness Australia, 2025). In high-cost urban areas, veterans with temporary shelter are at high risk of homelessness due to unaffordable housing and insecure living arrangements (Veteran Housing Australia [VHA], 2025). These pressures may lead veterans to reside in inadequate or unstable conditions, such as sleeping in vehicles or couch surfing with friends or family, often without certainty regarding the duration or stability of their stay in order to avoid homelessness (Veterans 360 Australia, 2024).

Several targeted programs exist in Australia and internationally to address and support veteran housing needs. Australian government-led initiatives and community-based collaborations offer funding and support to help at-risk veterans maintain stable housing and access essential services (Australian Government, 2025). Complementary efforts by not-for-profit organisations, such as Veteran Housing Australia in regional Victoria (VHA, 2025) and the Andrew Russell Veteran Living program by RSL Care (Returned and Services League Care) in South Australia (RSL Care, 2022), provide tailored housing solutions and support. In the United States (U.S.), the collaborative supportive housing program between the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) and the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA)—known as HUD-VASH—provides rental vouchers for private housing to assist veterans in securing housing accommodations and supportive services (U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs [VA], 2024). Addressing veteran homelessness requires a comprehensive and integrated approach, with wraparound services that combine housing assistance, mental health care, substance abuse treatment, and employment support to promote long-term stability and successful reintegration (U.S. VA, 2017).

Despite the challenges in transitioning into civilian life, many veterans transition successfully, demonstrating resilience and adaptability as they navigate post-service challenges. This positive transition is well-documented in countries such as Australia, the United Kingdom (UK), and the U.S. (Kerr et al., 2023; MITRE Corporation, 2023; Slapakova & Suman-Chauhan, 2025). Protective factors such as stable employment, strong social networks, access to education and training, and veteran-specific supports contribute to positive outcomes (Soldier on Australia, 2025). Military service cultivates transferable skills such as discipline, leadership, and strategic thinking that support reintegration and personal growth in civilian contexts (University of New South Wales, 2025). Thus, recognizing the diversity of veteran experiences is essential to avoid framing their transitions solely through a deficit lens and to promote more strengths-based approaches to wellbeing and social inclusion.

This scoping review aimed to explore the multifaceted pathways to homelessness among veterans and examine housing solutions across a broad spectrum of evidence. Given the complexity of veteran homelessness, particularly its intersection with mental health and transition challenges, as highlighted in the Final Report of the Royal Commission into Defence and Veteran Suicide (2024a), a scoping review was chosen to comprehensively synthesise existing research. This approach enabled the integration of both measurable outcomes and lived experiences, providing a holistic understanding of the structural, psychological, and social factors that contribute to housing instability.

Methods

This scoping review was conducted in accordance with the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) scoping review framework (Peters et al., 2017). This scoping review encompassed a range of study designs, including experimental, observational, descriptive, and qualitative studies, as well as systematic reviews and opinion papers. Ethics approval was not required since the review only examined publicly available literature without involving human participants or personal data. An initial database search conducted in October 2024 revealed that no existing scoping or systematic reviews addressed this overarching topic, although several narrower reviews on specific aspects were included.

Results

A total of 1434 studies were identified, and after removal of duplicates and abstract screening, 175 records proceeded to full-text review. Seventy-seven records (Figure 1) were included in this review. The included studies varied in research design, ranging from quantitative and qualitative studies to mixed-methods studies, as well as commentaries, various reviews, and grey literature, including government and media reports. The papers originated from three countries: Australia (n = 7), the United Kingdom (n = 1), and the U.S. (n = 69).

Figure 1

Discussion

This scoping review aimed to explore the multifaceted pathways to homelessness among veterans and examine housing solutions across a broad spectrum of evidence. The distribution of included studies and literature highlights a significant concentration of research and commentary originating from the United States., which accounted for the vast majority (n = 69) of the literature, compared to a smaller number from Australia (n = 7) and only one from the United Kingdom. The predominance of U.S.-based literature (90%) complicates the generalisability of findings to the Australian context. Differences in societal values, individual motivations for military service, and post-service support systems, including welfare and healthcare provision, vary significantly between countries. These contextual disparities limit the direct transferability of findings and highlight the need for locally grounded research that reflects the unique experiences of Australian veterans.

The findings across the literature were synthesised into two themes: pathways into homelessness and corresponding housing solutions, which highlight the complex and interconnected challenges faced by veterans experiencing homelessness in Australia and internationally. The literature highlights several key, interconnected factors that contribute to veteran homelessness, which often do not occur in isolation but overlap significantly. For instance, economic instability is frequently compounded by mental health issues or disability, which, in turn, may lead to housing instability or involvement with the justice system. Likewise, veterans experiencing social isolation may be less likely to access support services early, resulting in delayed intervention and more entrenched homelessness. Similarly, the housing solutions identified do not operate in isolation. Emergency accommodation often serves as an entry point to transitional or permanent housing, and Housing First approaches are most effective when integrated with mental health, substance use, and social support services. Across both pathways and solutions, it is clear that outcomes are shaped by the interaction between multiple personal, structural, and systemic factors. Hilferty et al.’s (2019) final report of the Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute inquiry affirms this interdependence, underscoring the need for integrated, trauma-informed, and veteran-specific responses that acknowledge the complex and compounding nature of veteran homelessness.

This scoping review found that while the existing literature on veteran homelessness and housing solutions is robust, significant challenges remain in translating evidence into practice within the Australian context. Models such as Housing First and integrated service approaches are well-supported by research and have demonstrated effectiveness abroad, particularly in the U.S., where national programs and centralised data systems facilitate consistent implementation and evaluation. In contrast, Australia lacks a coordinated national framework and consistent and reliable data collection across states and territories, as indicated by the Royal Commission into Defence and Veteran Suicide (2024b), and in an earlier review of the research and statistical evidence on veteran homelessness in Western Australia (Kaleveld et al., 2018).

This continuing fragmentation hampers the scalability of proven interventions and limits the ability to assess their impact, resulting in uneven service delivery and missed opportunities for evidence-informed practice. Although veterans are known to be disproportionately represented among the homeless population (Hilferty et al., 2021), current census and administrative datasets often fail to reliably capture veteran status, including gender specific data (Women Veterans Australia [WVA], 2025). This data gap restricts efforts to track prevalence, understand the pathways of homelessness, and evaluate the effectiveness of targeted interventions. To align with international best practices and improve outcomes for veterans experiencing homelessness, Australia must prioritise the development of a coordinated national database that includes veteran identifiers (Hilferty et al., 2021). Such infrastructure would support ongoing monitoring, facilitate research, and enable more consistent service delivery. Additionally, expanding research capacity through large-scale, longitudinal studies is essential to deepen the understanding of veteran homelessness and inform the design of evidence-based policies and programs.

Veteran homelessness in Australia is shaped by a complex interplay of systemic and structural challenges. Cusack et al. (2020) describe the process of resolving housing instability as not linear, with many veterans experiencing multiple cycles of housing insecurity throughout their lives, influenced by changing circumstances and vulnerabilities. The separation of responsibilities between the federally governed Department of Veterans’ Affairs (DVA) and state and territory governments, which oversee housing, creates fragmented service pathways that can delay or complicate access to support. Long-term funding deficits at both federal and state levels, compounded by the ongoing housing crisis, have further constrained the development and sustainability of veteran housing initiatives (Productivity Commission, 2025; VHA, 2025).

Despite recent efforts, such as the $30 million Veterans’ Acute Housing Program funded through the Housing Australia Future Fund (Australian Government, 2025), demand continues to outpace supply. While transitional and crisis accommodation options are available, their effectiveness is also limited by constrained funding (VHA, 2025) and inconsistent availability across states and territories (HAA, 2023). Moreover, the current system relies heavily on Ex-Service Organisations, community housing providers, and charitable initiatives to fill critical service gaps. This reliance on non-government actors, while valuable, underscores the absence of a coordinated national housing strategy for veterans. Without sustained investment in purpose-built, veteran-specific housing and integrated support services, many will continue to fall through the cracks.

A critical gap in Australia’s veteran housing landscape lies in the limited integration of diverse medical and wraparound services within project-based housing programs. Despite the clear benefits for veterans with complex medical and behavioural health needs, few initiatives embed full-time nurses or healthcare professionals into housing environments. This lack of embedded care contributes to a growing issue: a subset of veterans whose medical needs are too complex for independent living but not severe enough to qualify for institutional care. Additionally, bureaucratic barriers to accessing Medicare, such as delays in processing, lack of clarity around eligibility post-discharge, and fragmented service coordination, can critically undermine housing stability and recovery for veterans with complex physical or mental health needs. These individuals often cycle between costly hospital admissions and inadequate housing or shelter options, only receiving appropriate institutional support once their conditions deteriorate significantly (Hilferty et al., 2019).

A recent literature review highlights the growing number of homeless veterans aged 60 and over, alongside a rising demand for assisted living facilities specifically designed to meet their needs (Gahan et al., 2025). Addressing this gap requires investment in intermediate care models that bridge the divide between independent housing and institutional care, ensuring veterans receive timely, appropriate support before reaching crisis points.

The absence of veteran status in census and administrative datasets, combined with small-scale research samples, limits the ability to track prevalence and evaluate interventions effectively. Underrepresented groups such as female veterans (WVA, 2025), minority groups such as Indigenous veterans (Langton et al., 2022), and those with justice system involvement (Wadham et al., 2023) are especially impacted by these gaps, as current services often fail to reflect their specific needs. These intersecting issues make the pathways into and out of homelessness for veterans in Australia deeply complex and multifaceted. Addressing them requires a nuanced understanding of veterans’ lived experiences, alongside national leadership, cross-sector collaboration, and investment in inclusive data infrastructure to ensure equitable and effective support for all veterans.

The Housing All Australians (2023) report indicates that the way forward is through a place-based approach, providing housing that is secure and appropriately located, with access to healthcare, social services, employment opportunities, and veteran communities. Significantly, a report on the National Suicide Prevention Trial by Black Dog Institute (2021) emphasised a place-based initiative which encouraged veterans to grow their community connections while maintaining the uniqueness of veteran culture, necessary for suicide prevention success. This place-based approach complements national strategies focused on veteran transition and wellbeing, reinforcing the importance of integrated support systems that address both practical and psychosocial needs.

The agreed-upon Wellbeing Framework between Defence and DVA (Figure 2) proposes a shared vision for the preparation and transition of veterans and their families, inclusive of the six priorities outlined in Veteran Transition Strategy (Australian Government et al., 2023) and the Veteran Transition Action Plan (Australian Government et al., 2024). This Strategy defines transition as a personal and evolving journey from military to civilian life, involving not just practical changes but also emotional, cultural, and relational adjustments. In recognition of the diverse experiences of veterans and their families, the Strategy outlines six key priorities to improve transition outcomes: early planning, accessible support, family engagement, opportunities in employment and education, financial wellbeing, and a sense of support and recognition.

Figure 2

Despite growing recognition of the importance of psychosocial supports in veteran reintegration, Australia has yet to fully leverage the potential of peer support, veteran-specific services, and community-based institutions. These supports are not merely supplementary; they are foundational to fostering belonging and psychological resilience, particularly for veterans facing homelessness, trauma, or identity disruption. Peer support, grounded in shared military experience, is uniquely positioned to rebuild trust, reduce stigma, and encourage engagement with services (Matthews, 2025). Yet, such programs remain underutilised and inconsistently funded across regions. Veteran-specific services offer culturally competent care that addresses the distinct challenges of military life, including moral injury, PTSD, and the loss of identity. However, access to these services is challenging, especially in rural and remote areas where geographic isolation compounds the risk of disconnection.

Community institutions, such as Alcoholics Anonymous, local faith-based organisations, and veteran-led groups, provide low-barrier, non-clinical environments where veterans can rediscover their purpose, build social capital, and access informal support networks (Open Arms, 2025; Salute for Service, 2025; Werber et al., 2015). These spaces are particularly vital in the Australian context, where formal care systems may be difficult to navigate or culturally misaligned. Moreover, evidence suggests that interventions promoting protective psychosocial traits such as resilience, gratitude, and purpose can significantly mitigate mental health risks and support post-traumatic growth (Fogle et al., 2020). These outcomes are not incidental; they are essential to sustainable reintegration and housing strategies. Belongingness must be recognised not just as a protective factor, but as a strategic priority in veteran policy. Without a deliberate investment in these relational and community-based supports, Australia risks perpetuating cycles of disengagement and unmet need among its veteran population.

Conclusion

This scoping review highlights the complex and interconnected challenges veterans face in transitioning to civilian life and securing stable housing. Factors such as economic hardship, mental health issues, and social isolation contribute to housing instability, while fragmented governance, inconsistent data collection, and underrepresentation of vulnerable subgroups such as female, Indigenous, and justice-involved veterans further hinder recovery and reintegration. Although evidence-based Housing First models are well-supported internationally, their implementation in Australia is constrained by systemic barriers and a lack of national coordination. Stable housing, integrated health and social services, and strong community support, particularly those that foster a sense of belonging are essential to preventing homelessness and promoting long-term wellbeing. Addressing these issues requires a coordinated, trauma-informed, and veteran-centred approach, supported by improved data infrastructure and inclusive research. Future efforts should also learn from veterans who have transitioned successfully, using their experiences to inform strengths-based strategies that promote resilience and sustainable reintegration for all.

Data Accessibility Statement

No new primary data were created for this study. All data consist of previously published sources that are publicly available and cited in the reference list.

Competing Interests

The authors have no competing interests to declare.

Author Contributions

All authors (TC, MC, and KR) contributed to writing and editing of the scoping review. TC and MC developed the methodology, performed study screening, data extraction and data analysis.