Fig. 1.
Incidence of climate change among smallholder farmers across farming systems and agroecological zones
| Incidence of climate change | Agroecological zones | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| coastal plain | savanna woodland | transitional rain forest | rain forest | |||||||||
| crop | L/stock | fishery | crop | L/stock | fishery | Crop | L/stock | fishery | crop | L/stock | fishery | |
| Freq (%) | Freq (%) | Freq (%) | Freq (%) | Freq (%) | Freq (%) | Freq (%) | Freq (%) | Freq (%) | Freq (%) | Freq (%) | Freq (%) | |
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 |
| Change in the degree of temperature | 130 (30.4) | 8 (7.8) | 79 (91.9) | 153 (35.7) | 91 (88.3) | – | 67 (15.7) | 4 (3.9) | 7 (8.1) | 78 (18.2) | – | – |
| Change in the intensity of rainfall | 133 (28.9) | 4 (4.3) | 77 (89.5) | 152 (33.) | 88 (93.6 | – | 84 (18.3) | 2 (2.1) | 9 (10.5) | 91 (19.8) | – | – |
| Change in the frequency of rainfall | 135 (29.0) | 7 (7.5) | 78 (89.7) | 146 (31.3) | 83 (89.2) | – | 82 (17.6) | 3 (3.2) | 9 (10.3) | 82 (17.6) | – | – |
| Change in humidity (Heat) | 115 (26.8) | 8 (8.6) | 84 (92.3) | 87 (20.3) | 81 (87.1) | – | 87 (20.3) | 4 (4.3) | 7 (7.7) | 92 (21.4) | – | – |
| Change in the frequency of wind | 108 (25.7) | 2 (2.7) | 67 (89.3) | 128 (30.4) | 71 (95.9) | – | 98 (23.3) | 1 (1.4) | 8 (10.7) | 87 (20.7) | – | – |
| Change in the intensity of sunshine | 163 (33.9) | 4 (5.4) | 85 (92.4) | 133 (27.7) | 68 (91.9) | – | 86 (17.9) | 2 (2.7) | 7 (7.6) | 99 (20.6) | – | – |
| A prolonged dry season | 117 (30.2) | 8 (10.8) | 82 (96.5) | 112 (28.9) | 61 (82.4) | – | 67 (17.3) | 5 (6.8) | 3 (3.5) | 92 (23.7) | – | – |
| A prolonged rainy season | 121 (29.2) | 5 (7.7) | 60 (90.9) | 120 (28.9) | 58 (89.2) | – | 73 (17.6) | 2 (3.1) | 6 (9.1) | 101 (24.3) | – | – |
| A reduced harmattan period | 109 (31.5) | 4 (12.9) | 55 (93.2) | 103 (29.9) | 25 (80.6) | – | 67 (19.4) | 2 (6.5) | 4 (6.8) | 67 (19.4) | – | – |
| Warmer Harmattan season | 98 (27.7) | 8 (12.7) | 56 (94.9) | 105 (29.7) | 51 (81.0) | – | 77 (21.8) | 4 (6.3) | 3 (5.1) | 74 (20.9) | – | – |
| Drier wetlands | 112 (30.4) | 0 (0.0) | 73 (97.3) | 92 (24.9) | 43 (100) | – | 81 (22.0) | 0 (0.0) | 2 (2.7) | 84 (22.8) | – | – |
| Increased flooding | 133 (37.6) | 0 (0.0) | 60 (98.4) | 91 (25.7) | 34 (100) | – | 69 (19.5) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (1.6) | 61 (17.2) | – | – |
| Pest and disease resistance to control | 109 (26.5) | 5 (9.3) | 19 (86.4) | 130 (31.6) | 47 (87.0) | – | 86 (20.9) | 2 (3.7) | 3 (13.6) | 87 (21.1) | – | – |
| Drought | 92 (24.1) | 4 (13.8) | 48 (100) | 121 (31.7) | 23 (79.3) | – | 61 (16.0) | 2 (6.90 | 0 (0.0) | 108 (28.3) | – | – |
| The appearance of new weed species | 108 (29.8) | 0 (0.0) | 46 (100) | 91 (25.1) | 31 (100) | – | 80 (22.1) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 83 (22.9) | – | – |
| Recession of rivers | 96 (31.5) | 0 (0.0) | 54 (100) | 71 (23.3) | 30 (100) | – | 60 (19.7) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 78 (25.6) | – | – |
| Excessive run-off | 109 (29.8) | 0 (0.0) | 65 (100) | 81 (22.1) | 11 (100) | – | 85 (23.2) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 91 (24.9) | – | – |
| Frequent crop pests and disease outbreaks | 104 (29.7) | 4 (10.3) | 54 (100) | 88 (25.1) | 32 (82.1) | – | 80 (22.9) | 3 (7.7) | 0 (0.0) | 78 (22.3) | – | – |
| Insufficient flow of water bodies | 72 (24.7 | 0 (0.0) | 69 (100) | 65 (22.3) | 9 (100) | – | 78 (26.8) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 76 (26.1) | – | – |
| Rise in sea/ocean levels | 97 (30.6) | 0 (0.0) | 74 (100) | 81 (25.6) | 21 (100) | – | 68 (21.5) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 71 (22.4) | – | – |
| Interruption of the farming calendar | 169 (35.7) | – | – | 108 (22.8) | – | – | 83 (17.5) | – | – | 113 (23.9) | – | – |
| Crop failure | 177 (35.7) | – | – | 130 (26.2 | – | – | 86 (17.3) | – | – | 103 (20.8) | – | – |
| Less fertile soils | 166 (36.3) | – | – | 119 (26.0) | – | – | 90 (19.7) | – | – | 82 (17.9) | – | – |
| Shifting in seasonal patterns | 143 (31.9) | 8 (11.6) | 86 (93.5) | 112 (25.0) | 56 (81.2) | – | 100 (22.3) | 5 (7.2) | 6 (6.5) | 93 (20.8) | – | – |
| Limit animal productivity | – | 1 (1.0) | – | – | 95 (97.9) | – | – | 1 (1.0) | – | – | – | – |
| Reducing the area for grazing | – | 0 (0.0) | – | – | 100 (100) | – | – | 0 (0.0) | – | – | – | – |
| Increase morbidity and death rate in livestock | – | 5 (5.6) | – | – | 83 (92.2) | – | – | 2 (2.2) | – | – | – | – |
| Disruption of fish habitat | – | – | 71 (98.6) | – | – | – | – | – | 1 (1.4) | – | – | – |
| Change in animal migration patterns | – | 1 (1.0) | – | – | 100 (98.0) | – | – | 1 (1.0) | – | – | – | – |
Climate change awareness by smallholder farmers across farming systems and agroecological zones
| Climate change awareness | Agroecological zones | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| coastal plain | savanna woodland | transitional rain forest | rain forest | |||||||||
| crop | L/stock | fishery | crop | L/stock | fishery | crop | L/stock | fishery | crop | L/stock | fishery | |
| freq (%) | freq (%) | freq (%) | freq (%) | freq (%) | freq (%) | freq (%) | freq (%) | freq (%) | freq (%) | freq (%) | freq (%) | |
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 |
| Change in the degree of temperature | 172 (30.6) | 5 (4.7) | 95 (94.1) | 152 (27.0) | 100 (93.5) | – | 119 (21.2) | 2 (1.9) | 6 (5.9) | 119 (21.2) | – | – |
| Change in the intensity of rainfall | 198 (32.1) | 4 (3.8) | 99 (93.4) | 150 (24.4) | 98 (94.2) | – | 120 (19.5) | 2 (1.9) | 7 (6.6) | 148 (24.0) | – | – |
| Change in the frequency of rainfall | 192 (31.7) | 7 (7.3) | 99 (90.8) | 147 (24.3) | 86 (89.6) | – | 120 (19.8) | 3 (3.1) | 10 (9.2) | 147 (24.3) | – | – |
| Change in humidity (Heat) | 157 (28.4) | 3 (3.3) | 84 (91.3) | 150 (27.1) | 87 (95.6) | – | 119 (21.5) | 1 (1.1) | 8 (8.7) | 127 (23.0) | – | – |
| Change in the frequency of wind | 160 (28.8) | 3 (3.0) | 93 (94.9) | 143 (25.8) | 96 (95.0) | – | 118 (21.3) | 2 (2.0) | 5 (5.1) | 134 (24.1) | – | – |
| Change in the intensity of Sunshine | 186 (31.5) | 9 (8.5) | 94 (94.0) | 144 (24.4) | 92 (86.8) | – | 119 (20.2) | 5 (4.7) | 6 (6.0) | 141 (23.9) | – | – |
| A prolonged dry season | 149 (26.5) | 4 (3.8) | 61 (91.0) | 158 (28.1) | 100 (94.3) | – | 118 (21.0) | 2 (1.9) | 6 (9.0) | 138 (24.5) | – | – |
| A prolonged rainy season | 165 (28.3) | 3 (3.4) | 73 (88.0) | 159 (27.2) | 84 (94.4) | – | 120 (20.5) | 2 (2.2) | 10 (12.0) | 140 (24.0) | – | – |
| A reduced harmattan period | 122 (24.4) | 3 (3.9) | 68 (91.9) | 146 (29.2) | 73 (94.8) | – | 114 (22.8) | 1 (1.3) | 6 (8.1) | 118 (23.6) | – | – |
| Warmer harmattan season | 123 (24.6) | 4 (4.2) | 66 (91.7) | 150 (29.9) | 89 (93.7) | – | 109 (21.8) | 2 (2.1) | 6 (8.3) | 119 (23.8) | – | – |
| Drier wetlands | 131 (26.4) | 5 (4.8) | 39 (88.6) | 144 (29.0) | 97 (93.3) | – | 106 (21.4) | 2 (1.9) | 5 (11.4) | 115 (23.2) | – | – |
| Increased flooding | 130 (25.2) | 2 (4.3) | 53 (91.4) | 158 (30.6) | 44 (93.6) | – | 104 (20.2) | 1 (2.1) | 5 (8.6) | 124 (24.0) | – | – |
| Pest and disease resistance to control | 159 (29.1) | 3 (3.5) | 40 (88.9) | 147 (26.9) | 81 (94.2) | – | 106 (19.4) | 2 (2.3) | 5 (11.1) | 135 (24.7) | – | – |
| Drought | 93 (24.2) | 0 (0.0) | 20 (100) | 131 (34.1) | 68 (100.) | – | 88 (22.9) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 72 (18.8) | – | – |
| The appearance of new weed species | 82 (22.3) | 6 (4.5) | 23 (100) | 120 (32.6) | 2 (18.2) | – | 92 (25.0) | 3 (27.3) | 0 (0.0) | 74 (20.1) | – | – |
| Recession of rivers | 71 (28.5) | 4 (8.9) | 39 (100) | 52 (20.9) | 39 (86.7) | – | 68 (27.3) | 2 (4.4) | 0 (0.0) | 58 (23.3) | – | – |
| Excessive run-off | 96 (30.1) | 1 (2.4) | 35 (100) | 58 (18.2) | 39 (86.7) | – | 90 (28.2) | 2 (4.4) | 0 (0.0) | 75 (23.5) | – | – |
| Frequent pests and disease outbreaks | 95 (27.2) | 5 (71.4) | 29 (100) | 80 (22.9) | 2 (40.0) | – | 101 (28.9) | 1 (20.0) | 0 (0.0) | 73 (20.9) | – | – |
| Insufficient flow of water bodies | 89 (28.3) | 2 (4.0) | 41 (89.1) | 110 (34.9) | 73 (93.6) | – | 62 (19.7) | 2 (2.6) | 5 (10.9) | 54 (17.1) | – | – |
| Rise in sea/ocean levels | 59 (100) | 3 (3.8) | 69 (32.4) | 49 (23.0) | 0 (0.0) | – | 50 (23.5) | 28.6) | 0 (0.0) | 45 (21.1) | – | – |
| Interruption of the farming calendar | 199 (33.7) | – | – | 157 (26.6) | 0(0.0) | – | 117 (19.8) | 0(0.0) | – | 118 (20.0) | – | – |
| Crop failure | 204 (33.8) | – | – | 159 (26.4) | 0(0.0) | – | 118 (19.6) | 0(0.0) | – | 122 (20.2) | – | – |
| Less fertile soils | 175 (31.5) | – | – | 156 (28.1) | 0(0.0) | – | 113 (20.3) | 0(0.0) | – | 112 (20.1) | – | – |
| Shifting in seasonal patterns | 187 (31.6) | 10 (9.2) | 99 (90.8) | 152 (25.7) | 94 (86.2) | – | 114 (19.3) | 5 (4.6) | 10 (9.2) | 138 (23.4) | – | – |
| Limit animal productivity | – | 1 (1.1) | – | 0 (0.0) | 89 (97.8) | – | 0 (0.0) | 1 (1.1) | – | 0 (0.0) | – | – |
| Reducing the area for grazing | – | 2 (1.9) | – | 0 (0.0) | 100 (97.1) | – | 0 (0.0) | 1 (1.0) | – | 0 (0.0) | – | – |
| Increase death rate in livestock | – | 10 (9.1) | – | 0 (0.0) | 95 (86.4) | – | 0 (0.0) | 5 (4.5) | – | 0 (0.0) | – | – |
| Disruption of fish habitat | – | 0(0.0) | 93 (100) | 0 (0.0) | 0(0.0) | – | 0 (0.0) | 0(0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | – | – |
| Change in animal migration patterns | – | 3 (3.1) | – | 0 (0.0) | 91 (94.8) | – | 0 (0.0) | 2 (2.1) | – | 0 (0.0) | – | – |
| Lead to poverty and hunger | 193 (31.9) | 10 (9.3) | 56 (84.8) | 156 (25.8) | 92 (86.0) | – | 119 (19.7) | 5 (4.7) | 10 (15.2) | 137 (22.6) | – | – |
Determinants of climate change awareness and incidence by smallholder farmers across farming systems and agroecological zones
| Variable | Awareness | Incidence | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| B(Beta) | t | B(Beta) | t | |
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
| (Constant) | 30.068 (4.539) | 6.624*** | 17.355 (8.884) | 1.953** |
| Factors influencing fish smart practices | .016 (.036) | .434 | .988 (.059) | 16.646*** |
| Adoption of crop smart practices | .199 (.047) | 4.192*** | .164 (.071) | 2.328** |
| Information needs on crop smart practices | .057 (.123) | .463 | −.182 (.091) | −1.998** |
| Constraints on crop smart practices | .091 (.060) | 1.516 | .451 (.240) | 1.880* |
| Adoption of water-smart practices | −.084 (.050) | −1.687* | −.243 (.118) | −2.061** |
| Information needs on water smart practices | −.334 (.060) | −5.581*** | .064 (.098) | .657 |
| Constraints on water smart practices | −.070 (.075) | −.921 | .030 (.119) | .251 |
| Adoption of nutrient smart practices | .445 (.042) | 10.592*** | −.379 (.148) | −2.553** |
| Information needs on nutrient smart practices | −.084 (.089) | −.949 | −.033 (.088) | −.369 |
| Constraints on nutrient smart practices | −.069 (.026) | −2.669*** | .282 (.175) | 1.614 |
| Adoption of energy/carbon smart practices | .224 (.070) | 3.206*** | −.103 (.050) | −2.047* |
| Information needs on energy/carbon smart practices | .038 (.082) | .463 | −1.003 (.134) | −7.480*** |
| Adoption of livestock smart practices | .556 (.154) | 3.608*** | .337 (.160) | 2.107** |
| Information needs on livestock smart practices | 2.782 (.496) | 5.606*** | .538 (.304) | 1.773* |
| Constraints on livestock smart practices | −2.053 (.293) | −7.019*** | −5.297 (.979) | −5.409*** |
| Adoption of fish smart practices | .043 (.090) | .474 | 2.980 (.585) | 5.096*** |
| Information needs on fish smart practices | .134 (.098) | 1.356 | .089 (.178) | .499 |
| Constraints on fish smart practices | −.406 (.121) | −3.346*** | .058 (.194) | .300 |
| Adoption of weather smart practices | −.095 (.059) | −1.604 | −.147 (.241) | −.610 |
| Information needs on whether smart practices | .446 (.127) | 3.505*** | .686 (.115) | 5.974*** |
| Constraints on weather smart practices | −.031 (.049) | −.631 | −.496 (.242) | −2.051** |
| Factors influencing the adoption of CSA practices | −.005 (.012) | −.428 | .362 (.096) | 3.761*** |
| Factors influencing the farming systems practices | .085 (.048) | 1.753* | .102 (.022) | 4.574*** |
| Age of the farmer | .007 (.022) | .316 | −.265 (.093) | −2.849*** |
| Gender of the farmer | .598 (.556) | 1.074 | −.093 (.043) | −2.171** |
| Farmers' level of education | −.294 (.227) | −1.300 | −1.156 (1.097) | −1.054 |
| Farmers' marital status | .214 (.558) | .383 | .118 (.447) | .264 |
| Farmers' religious affiliation | −.577 (.492) | −1.174 | .432 (1.101) | .392 |
| Farmers' household size | −.163 (.067) | −2.434** | −.507 (.962) | −.527 |
| Farmers' household members that are below 18 years | −.086 (.135) | −.638 | .318 (.131) | 2.421** |
| Farmers' household status | −.579 (.690) | −.839 | .115 (.264) | .437 |
| Length of stay in the community | .012 (.017) | .682 | .933 (1.362) | .685 |
| Farmers' position in the community | −.351 (.145) | −2.426** | .032 (.034) | .929 |
| Farmers' affiliation with a farming organization | .563 (.826) | .682 | .281 (.286) | .984 |
| Farmers' status in farming organization | −.019 (.206) | −.093 | .016 (1.630) | .010 |
| Agroecological zone | .131 (.248) | .529 | .431 (.406) | 1.062 |
| Incidence of climate change | .252 (.015) | 16.282*** | ||
| R | 0.77 | 0.68 | ||
| R square | 0.59 | 0.46 | ||
| Adjusted R Square | 0.57 | 0.44 | ||
| F | 32.45 | 19.78 | ||
| P | 0.05 | 0.05 | ||
Principal Component Analysis of the determinants of awareness and incidence of climate change across farming systems and agroecological zones
| Component matrix | Factor 1 Impact | Factor 2 Occurrence | Factor 3 Evidence | Factor 4 Threat | Communalities |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
| Reduce reproductive efficiency and egg production, quality, and weight | −.924 | 0.950 | |||
| Reduce body size, carcass weight, and fat thickness | −.922 | 0.952 | |||
| Reduce livestock growth | −.922 | 0.953 | |||
| Decrease water availability and quality | −.918 | 0.952 | |||
| Reduce livestock reproductive successes and milk production | −.918 | 0.955 | |||
| High Temp causes heat stress in livestock | −.917 | 0.954 | |||
| Reducing the area for grazing | −.917 | 0.955 | |||
| Increase morbidity and death rate in livestock | −.916 | 0.934 | |||
| Increase livestock water requirement | −.914 | 0.947 | |||
| Change in animal migration patterns | −.912 | 0.947 | |||
| Limit animal productivity/yield | −.907 | 0.938 | |||
| Excessive run-off | .667 | 0.705 | |||
| Reduced crop yields | .665 | 0.880 | |||
| Less fertile soils | .657 | 0.850 | |||
| Insufficient flow of water bodies | .655 | 0.719 | |||
| Inundation of coastal low-lying areas | .627 | 0.671 | |||
| Increased virulence of pathogens, new diseases, etc. | .609 | 0.694 | |||
| Rise in ocean levels | .601 | 0.658 | |||
| Water stress and drought conditions | .599 | 0.581 | |||
| The appearance of new weed species | .589 | 0.642 | |||
| Recession of rivers | .557 | 0.636 | |||
| Frequent crop pests and disease outbreaks | .535 | 0.593 | |||
| Ground-water shortage | .498 | 0.490 | |||
| Artisanal fishermen have to go farther out for catches | .880 | 0.927 | |||
| Social disruptions/new fisher Influx | .879 | 0.927 | |||
| Sea level changes, flooding, and surges | .878 | 0.925 | |||
| Disruption of fish feeding, breeding, and habitat loss | .875 | 0.929 | |||
| Increased dangers of fishing | .875 | 0.925 | |||
| Changes in the proportion of fisheries species | .839 | 0.905 | |||
| Crop failure | -.663 | 0.882 | |||
| Interruption of the farming calendar | -.622 | 0.772 | |||
| Increased frequency of strong winds and dust | .675 | 0.561 | |||
| Pest and disease resistance to control | .636 | 0.476 | |||
| A prolonged dry season | .546 | 0.505 | |||
| Change in humidity (Heat) | .538 | 0.440 | |||
| Warmer Harmattan season | .535 | 0.430 | |||
| Increased flooding | .443 | 0.371 | |||
| A prolonged rainy season | .415 | 0.228 | |||
| Drier wetlands | .388 | 0.312 | |||
| Change in the degree of temperature | .308 | 0.241 | |||
| A reduced harmattan period | .794 | 0.136 | |||
| Change in the intensity of rainfall | .732 | 0.145 | |||
| hDrying out of fish ponds | .731 | 0.068 | |||
| Change in the frequency of wind | .723 | 0.044 | |||
| Change in the intensity of Sunshine | .718 | 0.004 | |||
| Threaten farmers' welfare | .595 | 0.645 | |||
| Reduces income and agriculture-based economies | .402 | 0.571 | |||
| Shifting in seasonal patterns | .469 | 0.554 | |||
| Affect food quality | .421 | 0.608 | |||
| Lead to poverty and hunger | .454 | 0.587 | |||
| Threatens food security and livelihood | .435 | 0.383 | |||
| Change in the frequency of rainfall | .377 | 0.112 | |||
| Percentage of total variance | 14.96 | 8.27 | 6.41 | 3.50 | |
| Extraction method: Principal Component Analysis – 4 components were extracted. | |||||
| Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy 0.875 | |||||
| Approx. Chi-Square 74881.990 | |||||
| df 1326 | |||||
| Sig .000 | |||||
Rate of incidence of climate change among smallholder farmers across farming systems and agroecological zones
| Climate change parameters | Rate of incidence of climate change | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| high | moderate | low | none response | total | |
| freq (%) | freq (%) | freq (%) | freq (%) | freq (%) | |
| Change in the degree of temperature | 617 (71.3) | 131 (15.1) | 50 (5.8) | 67 (7.7) | 865 (100) |
| Change in the intensity of rainfall | 640 (74.0) | 142 (16.4) | 62 (7.2) | 21 (2.4) | 865 (100) |
| Change in the frequency of rainfall | 646 (74.7) | 141 (16.3) | 57 (6.6) | 21 (2.4) | 865 (100) |
| Change in humidity (heat) | 613 (70.9) | 137 (15.8) | 26 (3.0) | 89 (10.3) | 865 (100) |
| Change in the frequency of wind | 570 (65.9) | 178 (20.6) | 39 (4.5) | 78 (9.0) | 865 (100) |
| Change in the intensity of sunshine | 647 (74.8) | 160 (18.50 | 19 (2.2) | 39 (4.5) | 865 (100) |
| Evidence of climate change | |||||
| A prolonged dry season | 547 (63.2) | 222 (25.7) | 39 (4.5) | 57 (6.6) | 865 (100) |
| A prolonged rainy season | 546 (63.1) | 227 (26.2) | 64 (7.4) | 28 (3.2) | 865 (100) |
| A reduced harmattan period | 436 (50.4) | 313 (36.2) | 40 (4.6) | 76 (8.8) | 865 (100) |
| Warmer harmattan season | 476 (55.0) | 241 (27.9) | 101 (11.7) | 47 (5.4) | 865 (100) |
| Drier wetlands | 487 (56.3) | 216 (25.2) | 105 (12.1) | 57 (6.6) | 865 (100) |
| Increased flooding | 449 (51.9) | 259 (29.9) | 66 (7.6) | 91 (10.5) | 865 (100) |
| Pest and disease resistance to control | 488 (56.4) | 211 (24.5) | 71 (8.2) | 95 (11.0) | 865 (100) |
| Increased frequency of strong winds and dust | 498 (57.6) | 186 (21.5) | 100 (11.6) | 81 (9.4) | 865 (100) |
| Ground-water shortage | 387 (44.7) | 236 (27.3) | 114 (13.2) | 128 (14.8) | 865 (100) |
| Water stress and drought conditions | 459 (53.1) | 203 (23.5) | 60 (6.9) | 143 (16.5) | 865 (100) |
| The appearance of new weed species | 439 (50.8) | 187 (21.6) | 51 (5.9) | 188 (21.7) | 865 (100) |
| Recession of rivers | 389 (45.0) | 209 (24.2) | 59 (6.0) | 208 (24.0) | 865 (100) |
| Excessive run-off | 442 (51.1) | 153 (17.7) | 45 (5.2) | 225 (26.0) | 865 (100) |
| Frequent crop pests and disease outbreaks | 443 (51,2) | 197 (22.8) | 69 (8.0) | 156 (18.0) | 865 (100) |
| Insufficient flow of water bodies | 369 (42.7) | 206 (23.8) | 77 (8.9) | 213 (24.6) | 865 (100) |
| Rise in ocean levels | 412 (47.6) | 184 (21.3) | 54 (6.20 | 215 (24.9) | 865 (100) |
| Inundation of coastal low-lying areas | 383 (44.3) | 181 (20.9) | 74 (8.60 | 227 (26.2) | 865 (100) |