Skip to main content
Have a personal or library account? Click to login
Impacts of Land-Use–Environment Interactions on Anthropogenic and Natural Sources and Sinks of CO2 Cover

Impacts of Land-Use–Environment Interactions on Anthropogenic and Natural Sources and Sinks of CO2

Open Access
|Aug 2026

References

  1. Alkama, R., & Cescatti, A. (2016). Biophysical climate impacts of recent changes in global forest cover. Science, 351(6273), 600604. 10.1126/science.aac8083
  2. Amali, A. A., Schwingshackl, C., Ito, A., Barbu, A., Delire, C., Peano, D., Lawrence, D. M., Wårlind, D., Robertson, E., Davin, E. L., Shevliakova, E., Harman, I. N., Vuichard, N., Miller, P. A., Lawrence, P. J., Ziehn, T., Hajima, T., Brovkin, V., Zhang, Y., Arora, V. K., & Pongratz, J. (2025). Biogeochemical versus biogeophysical temperature effects of historical land-use change in cmip6. Earth System Dynamics, 16(3), 803840. 10.5194/esd-16-803-2025
  3. Anderegg, W. R. L., Schwalm, C., Biondi, F., Camarero, J. J., Koch, G., Litvak, M., Ogle, K., Shaw, J. D., Shevliakova, E., Williams, A. P., Wolf, A., Ziaco, E., & Pacala, S. (2015). Pervasive drought legacies in forest ecosystems and their implications for carbon cycle models. Science, 349(6247), 528532. 10.1126/science.aab1833
  4. Anderegg, W. R. L., Trugman, A. T., Badgley, G., Anderson, C. M., Bartuska, A., Ciais, P., Cullenward, D., Field, C. B., Freeman, J., Goetz, S. J., Hicke, J. A., Huntzinger, D., Jackson, R. B., Pacala, S., & Randerson, J. T. (2020). Climate-driven risks to the climate mitigation potential of forests. Science, 368(6497), 13271331. 10.1126/science.aaz7005
  5. Arneth, A., Sitch, S., Pongratz, J., Stocker, B., Ciais, P., Poulter, B., Bayer, A. D., Bondeau, A., Calle, L., Chini, L., Gasser, T., Fader, M., Friedlingstein, P., Kato, E., Li, W., Lindeskog, M., Nabel, J., Pugh, T., Robertson, E., Viovy, N., Yue, C., & Zaehle, S. (2017). Historical carbon dioxide emissions caused by land-use changes are possibly larger than assumed. Nature Geoscience, 10, 7984. 10.1038/ngeo2882
  6. Assis, L. F. F. G., Ferreira, K. R., Vinhas, L., Maurano, L., Almeida, C., Carvalho, A., Rodrigues, J., Maciel, A., & Camargo, C. (2019). Terrabrasilis: A spatial data analytics infrastructure for large-scale thematic mapping. ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information, 8, 513. 10.3390/ijgi8110513
  7. Babiker, M., Berndes, G., Blok, K., Cohen, B., Cowie, A., Geden, O., Ginzburg, V., Leip, A., Smith, P., Sugiyama, M., & Yamba, F. (2022). Cross-sectoral perspectives. In P. R. Shukla, J. Skea, R. Slade, A. Al Khourdajie, R. van Diemen, D. McCollum, M. Pathak, S. Some, P. Vyas, R. Fradera, M. Belkacemi, A. Hasija, G. Lisboa, S. Luz, & J. Malley (Eds.), Climate change 2022: Mitigation of climate change. Cambridge University Press.
  8. Bacastow, R., & Keeling, C. D. (1973). Atmospheric carbon dioxide and radiocarbon in the natural carbon cycle: II. Changes from a.d. 1700 to 2070 as deduced from a geochemical model. In Brookhaven Symposia in Biology, 30, 86135. Brookhaven National Laboratory.
  9. Baccini, A., Walker, W., Carvalho, L., Farina, M., Sulla-Menashe, D., & Houghton, R. (2017). Tropical forests are a net carbon source based on aboveground measurements of gain and loss. Science, 358(6360), 230234. 10.1126/science.aam5962
  10. Bolin, B. (1977). Changes of land biota and their importance for the carbon cycle. Science, 196(4290), 613615. 10.1126/science.196.4290.613
  11. Bonan, G., Pollard, D., & Thompson, S. (1992). Effects of boreal forest vegetation on global climate. Nature, 359, 716718. 10.1038/359716a0
  12. Boysen, L., Brovkin, V., Arora, V., Cadule, P., de Noblet-Ducoudré, N., Kato, E., Pongratz, J., & Gayler, V. (2014). Global and regional effects of land-use change on climate in 21st century simulations with interactive carbon cycle. Earth System Dynamics, 5(2), 309319. 10.5194/esd-5-309-2014
  13. Brovkin, V., Boysen, L., Arora, V., Boisier, J., Cadule, P., Chini, L., Claussen, M., Friedlingstein, P., Gayler, V., Van Den Hurk, B., et al. (2013). Effect of anthropogenic land-use and land-cover changes on climate and land carbon storage in CMIP5 projections for the twenty-first century. Journal of Climate, 26(18), 68596881. 10.1175/JCLI-D-12-00623.1
  14. Bundesministerium für Ernährung und Landwirtschaft (BMEL) (2022). Der Wald in Deutschland: Ausgewählte Ergebnisse der vierten Bundeswaldinventur. https://www.bmleh.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/DE/Broschueren/vierte-bundeswaldinventur.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=17. (Accessed 2026-02-14).
  15. Bustamante, M., Roy, J., Ospina, D., Achakulwisut, P., Aggarwal, A., Bastos, A., Broadgate, W., Canadell, J. G., Carr, E. R., Chen, D., Cleugh, H. A., Ebi, K. L., Edwards, C., Farbotko, C., Fernández-Martínez, M., Frölicher, T. L., Fuss, S., Geden, O., Gruber, N., …, Zscheischler, J. (2023). Ten new insights in climate science 2023. Global Sustainability, 7, e19. 10.1017/sus.2023.25
  16. Claussen, M., Brovkin, V., & Ganopolski, A. (2001). Biogeophysical versus biogeochemical feedbacks of large-scale land cover change. Geophysical Research Letters, 28(6), 10111014. 10.1029/2000GL012471
  17. Dooley, K., Self, A., Tsai, Y., & Horner, K. (2025). Chapter 1 The Land Gap. In The Land Gap Report 2025. University of Melbourne. https://www.landgap.org/
  18. Dorgeist, L., Schwingshackl, C., Bultan, S., & Pongratz, J. (2024). A consistent budgeting of terrestrial carbon fluxes. Nature Communications, 15, 7426. 10.1038/s41467-024-51126-x
  19. Erb, K.-H., Kastner, T., Plutzar, C., Bais, A. L. S., Carvalhais, N., Fetzel, T., Gingrich, S., Haberl, H., Lauk, C., Niedertscheider, M., et al. (2017). Unexpectedly large impact of forest management and grazing on global vegetation biomass. Nature, 553(7686), 73. 10.1038/nature25138
  20. Fisher, R. A., Koven, C. D., Anderegg, W. R. L., Christoffersen, B. O., Dietze, M. C., Farrior, C. E., Holm, J. A., Hurtt, G. C., Knox, R. G., Lawrence, P. J., Lichstein, J. W., Longo, M., Matheny, A. M., Medvigy, D., Muller-Landau, H. C., Powell, T. L., Serbin, S. P., Sato, H., Shuman, J. K., …, Moorcroft, P. R. (2018). Vegetation demographics in earth system models: A review of progress and priorities. Global change biology, 24(1), 3554. 10.1111/gcb.13910
  21. Friedlingstein, P., Le Quéré, C., O’sullivan, M., Hauck, J., Landschützer, P., Luijkx, I. T., Li, H., van der Woude, A., Schwingshackl, C., Pongratz, J., et al. (2025). Emerging climate impact on carbon sinks in a consolidated carbon budget. Nature, 649(8095), 98103. 10.1038/s41586-025-09802-5
  22. Friedlingstein, P., O’Sullivan, M., Jones, M. W., Andrew, R. M., Bakker, D. C. E., Hauck, J., Landschützer, P., Le Quéré, C., Li, H., Luijkx, I. T., Peters, G. P., Peters, W., Pongratz, J., Schwingshackl, C., Sitch, S., Canadell, J. G., Ciais, P., Aas, K., Alin, S. R., …, Zeng, J. (2026). Global carbon budget 2025. Earth System Science Data, 18(5), 32113288. 10.5194/essd-18-3211-2026
  23. Ganzenmüller, R., Obermeier, W. A., Bultan, S., Spawn-Lee, S. A., Zabel, F., & Pongratz, J. (2025). Humans have depleted global terrestrial carbon stocks by a quarter. One Earth, 8, 101392. 10.1016/j.oneear.2025.101392
  24. Gasser, T., Ciais, P., & Lewis, S. L. (2022). How the Glasgow Declaration on Forests can help keep alive the 1.5°C target. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 119(23), e2200519119. 10.1073/pnas.2200519119
  25. Gasser, T., Crepin, L., Quilcaille, Y., Houghton, R. A., Ciais, P., & Obersteiner, M. (2020). Historical CO2 emissions from land-use and land-cover change and their uncertainty. Biogeosciences, 17, 40754101. 10.5194/bg-17-4075-2020
  26. Gidden, M. J., Gasser, T., Grassi, G., Forsell, N., Janssens, I., Lamb, W. F., Minx, J., Nicholls, Z., Steinhauser, J., & Riahi, K. (2023). Aligning climate scenarios to emissions inventories shifts global benchmarks. Nature, 624, 102108. 10.1038/s41586-023-06724-y
  27. Gitz, V., & Ciais, P. (2003). Amplifying effects of land-use change on future atmospheric CO2 levels. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 17(1). 10.1029/2002GB001963
  28. Grassi, G., House, J., Kurz, W. A., Cescatti, A., Houghton, R. A., Peters, G. P., Sanz, M. J., Viñas, R. A., Alkama, R., Arneth, A., Bondeau, A., Dentener, F., Fader, M., Federici, S., Friedlingstein, P., Jain, A. K., Kato, E., Koven, C. D., Lee, D., …, Zaehle, S. (2018). Reconciling global-model estimates and country reporting of anthropogenic forest CO2 sinks. Nature Climate Change, 8, 914920. 10.1038/s41558-018-0283-x
  29. Grassi, G., Peters, G. P., Canadell, J. G., Cescatti, A., Federici, S., Gidden, M. J., Harris, N., Herold, M., Krug, T., O’Sullivan, M., Pongratz, J., Sanz, M. J., Schwingshackl, C., & van Vuuren, D. (2025). Improving land-use emission estimates under the Paris Agreement. Nature Sustainability, 8, 579581. 10.1038/s41893-025-01565-1
  30. Grassi, G., Schwingshackl, C., Gasser, T., Houghton, R. A., Sitch, S., Canadell, J. G., Cescatti, A., Ciais, P., Federici, S., Friedlingstein, P., Kurz, W. A., Sanz Sanchez, M. J., Abad Viñas, R., Alkama, R., Bultan, S., Ceccherini, G., Falk, S., Kato, E., Kennedy, D., …, Pongratz, J. (2023). Harmonising the land-use flux estimates of global models and national inventories for 2000–2020. Earth System Science Data, 15, 10931114. 10.5194/essd-15-1093-2023
  31. Guo, S., Havermann, F., De Hertog, S. J., Luo, F., Manola, I., Raddatz, T., Li, H., Thiery, W., Lejeune, Q., Schleussner, C.-F., Wårlind, D., Nieradzik, L., & Pongratz, J. (2025). Remote carbon cycle changes are overlooked impacts of land cover and land management changes. Earth System Dynamics, 16(2), 631666. 10.5194/esd-16-631-2025
  32. Hansis, E., Davis, S. J., & Pongratz, J. (2015). Relevance of methodological choices for accounting of land use change carbon fluxes. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 29(8), 12301246. 10.1002/2014GB004997
  33. Heinrich, V. H., Vancutsem, C., Dalagnol, R., Rosan, T. M., Fawcett, D., Silva-Junior, C. H., Cassol, H. L., Achard, F., Jucker, T., Silva, C. A., House, J., Sitch, S., Hales, T. C., & Aragão, L. E. O. C. (2023). The carbon sink of secondary and degraded humid tropical forests. Nature, 615(7952), 436442. 10.1038/s41586-022-05679-w
  34. Henderson-Sellers, A., & Gornitz, V. (1984). Possible climatic impacts of land cover transformations, with particular emphasis on tropical deforestation. Climatic Change, 6(3), 231257. 10.1007/BF00142475
  35. Högbom, A. G. (1894). Om sannolikheten för sekulära förändringar i atmosfärens kolsyrehalt [über die wahrscheinlichkeit säkularer veränderungen des kohlensäuregehalts der atmosphäre]. Svensk Kemisk Tidskrift, 4, 169177.
  36. Houghton, R. (1999). The annual net flux of carbon to the atmosphere from changes in land use 1850–1990. Tellus, 51(B), 298313. 10.3402/tellusb.v51i2.16288
  37. Houghton, R. (2003). Revised estimates of the annual net flux of carbon to the atmosphere from changes in land use 1850–2000. Tellus, 55(B), 378390. 10.1034/j.1600-0889.2003.01450.x
  38. Houghton, R., Hobbie, J., Melillo, J., Moore, B., Peterson, B., Shaver, G., & Woodwell, G. (1983). Changes in the carbon content of terrestrial biota and soils between 1860 and 1980: A net release of CO2 to the atmosphere. Ecological Monographs, 53(3), 235262. 10.2307/1942531
  39. Houghton, R., & Nassikas, A. A. (2017). Global and regional fluxes of carbon from land use and land cover change 1850–2015. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 31(3), 456472. 10.1002/2016GB005546
  40. Houghton, R. A. (2013). Keeping management effects separate from environmental effects in terrestrial carbon accounting. Global Change Biology, 19(9), 26092612. 10.1111/gcb.12233
  41. Houghton, R. A. (2018). Interactions between land-use change and climate-carbon cycle feedbacks. Current Climate Change Reports, 4, 115127. 10.1007/s40641-018-0099-9
  42. Houghton, R. A., Boone, R. D., Fruci, J. R., Hobbie, J. E., Melillo, J. M., Palm, C. A., Peterson, B. J., Shaver, G. R., Woodwell, G. M., Moore, B., Skole, D. L., & Myers, N. (1987). The flux of carbon from terrestrial ecosystems to the atmosphere in 1980 due to changes in land use: geographic distribution of the global flux. Tellus B: Chemical and Physical Meteorology, 39(1–2), 122139. 10.1111/j.1600-0889.1987.tb00277.x
  43. Houghton, R. A., & Castanho, A. (2023). Annual emissions of carbon from land use, land-use change, & forestry from 1850 to 2020. Earth System Science Data, 15(5), 20252054. 10.5194/essd-15-2025-2023
  44. IPCC (2006). 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES), Hayama, Japan.
  45. Jäger, F., Schwaab, J., Quilcaille, Y., Windisch, M., Doelman, J., Frank, S., Gusti, M., Havlik, P., Humpenöder, F., Lessa Derci Augustynczik, A., et al. (2024). Fire weather compromises forestation-reliant climate mitigation pathways. Earth System Dynamics, 15(4), 10551071. 10.5194/esd-15-1055-2024
  46. Jones, C. D., Ciais, P., Davis, S. J., Friedlingstein, P., Gasser, T., Peters, G. P., Rogelj, J., van Vuuren, D. P., Canadell, J. G., Cowie, A., et al. (2016). Simulating the earth system response to negative emissions. Environmental Research Letters, 11(9), 095012. 10.1088/1748-9326/11/9/095012
  47. Jones, M. W., Peters, G. P., Gasser, T., et al. (2023). National contributions to climate change due to historical emissions of carbon dioxide, methane, & nitrous oxide since 1850. Scientific Data, 10, 155. 10.1038/s41597-023-02041-1
  48. Keeling, C. D. (1973). The carbon dioxide cycle: Reservoir models to depict the exchange of atmospheric carbon dioxide with the oceans and land plants. In Chemistry of the Lower Atmosphere (pp. 251329). Plenum Press. 10.1007/978-1-4684-1986-3_6
  49. Lapola, D. M., Pinho, P., Barlow, J., Aragão, L. E. O. C., Berenguer, E., Carmenta, R., Liddy, H. M., Seixas, H., Silva, C. V. J., Silva-Junior, C. H. L., Alencar, A. A. C., Anderson, L. O., Armenteras, D., Brovkin, V., Calders, K., Chambers, J., Chini, L., Costa, M. H., Faria, B. L., …,Walker, W. S. (2023). The drivers and impacts of amazon forest degradation. Science, 379(6630), eabp8622. 10.1126/science.abp8622
  50. Le Quéré, C., Andres, R., Boden, T., Conway, T., Houghton, R., House, J., Marland, G., Peters, G., Werf, G., Ahlström, A., et al. (2013). The global carbon budget 1959–2011. Earth System Science Data, 5(1), 165185. 10.5194/essd-5-165-2013
  51. Liddicoat, S. K., Wiltshire, A. J., Jones, C. D., Arora, V. K., Brovkin, V., Cadule, P., Hajima, T., Lawrence, D. M., Pongratz, J., Schwinger, J., Séférian, R., Tjiputra, J. F., & Ziehn, T. (2021). Compatible fossil fuel CO2 emissions in the CMIP6 earth system models’ historical and shared socioeconomic pathway experiments of the Twenty-First Century. Journal of Climate, 34(7), 28212844. 10.1175/JCLI-D-19-0991.1
  52. Luyssaert, S., Jammet, M., Stoy, P. C., Estel, S., Pongratz, J., Ceschia, E., Churkina, G., Don, A., Erb, K., Ferlicoq, M., et al. (2014). Land management and land-cover change have impacts of similar magnitude on surface temperature. Nature Climate Change, 4(5), 389393. 10.1038/nclimate2196
  53. Matricardi, E. A. T., Skole, D. L., Costa, O. B., Pedlowski, M. A., Samek, J. H., & Miguel, E. P. (2020). Long-term forest degradation surpasses deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon. Science, 369(6509), 13781382. 10.1126/science.abb3021
  54. McGuffie, K., Henderson-Sellers, A., Zhang, H., Durbidge, T., & Pitman, A. (1995). Global climate sensitivity to tropical deforestation. Global and Planetary Change, 10(1), 97128. 10.1016/0921-8181(94)00022-6
  55. McGuire, A., Sitch, S., Clein, J., Dargaville, R., Esser, G., Foley, J., Heimann, M., Joos, F., Kaplan, J., Kicklighter, D., Meier, R., Melillo, J., II, B. M., Prentice, I., Ramankutty, N., Reichenau, T., Schloss, A., Tian, H., Williams, L., & Wittenberg, U. (2001). Carbon balance of the terrestrial biosphere in the twentieth century: Analyses of CO2, climate and land use effects with four process-based ecosystem models. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 15, 183206. 10.1029/2000GB001298
  56. Melo, J., Rossi, S., Achard, F., Alkama, R., Canadell, J. G., Federici, S., Friedlingstein, P., Gibbs, D., Harris, N., Heinrich, V., et al. (2026). The lulucf data hub: translating global land use emissions estimates into the national GHG inventory framework. Earth System Science Data Discussions, 2026, 155. 10.5194/essd-2025-631
  57. Obermeier, W. A., Nabel, J. E., Loughran, T., Hartung, K., Bastos, A., Havermann, F., Anthoni, P., Arneth, A., Goll, D. S., Lienert, S., et al. (2021). Modelled land use and land cover change emissions–a spatio-temporal comparison of different approaches. Earth System Dynamics, 12(2), 635670. 10.5194/esd-12-635-2021
  58. Obermeier, W. A., Schwingshackl, C., Ganzenmüller, R., Grassi, G., Heinrich, V., Luijkx, I. T., Bastos, A., Ciais, P., Sitch, S., & Pongratz, J. (2025). Differences and uncertainties in land-use CO2 flux estimates. Nature Reviews Earth & Environment, 6, 747766. 10.1038/s43017-025-00730-6
  59. O’Sullivan, M., Friedlingstein, P., Sitch, S., et al. (2026). An improved approach to estimate the natural land carbon sink. NPJ Climate and Atmospheric Science, 9, 29. 10.1038/s41612-025-01302-7
  60. Plass, G. N. (1956). The carbon dioxide theory of climatic change. Tellus, 8(2), 140154. 10.1111/j.2153-3490.1956.tb01206.x
  61. Pongratz, J., & Caldeira, K. (2012). Attribution of atmospheric CO2 and temperature increases to regions: Importance of preindustrial land use change. Environmental Research Letters, 7(3), 034001. 10.1088/1748-9326/7/3/034001
  62. Pongratz, J., Dolman, H., Don, A., Erb, K.-H., Fuchs, R., Herold, M., Jones, C., Kuemmerle, T., Luyssaert, S., Meyfroidt, P., et al. (2017). Models meet data: Challenges and opportunities in implementing land management in earth system models. Global Change Biology, 24(4), 14701487. 10.1111/gcb.13988
  63. Pongratz, J., Reick, C., Raddatz, T., & Claussen, M. (2009). Effects of anthropogenic land cover change on the carbon cycle of the last millennium. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 23, GB4001. 10.1029/2009GB003488
  64. Pongratz, J., Reick, C. H., Houghton, R., & House, J. (2014). Terminology as a key uncertainty in net land use and land cover change carbon flux estimates. Earth System Dynamics, 5(1), 177. 10.5194/esd-5-177-2014
  65. Pongratz, J., Schwingshackl, C., Bultan, S., et al. (2021). Land use effects on climate: Current state, recent progress, and emerging topics. Current Climate Change Reports, 7, 99120. 10.1007/s40641-021-00178-y
  66. Pongratz, J., Smith, S. M., Schwingshackl, C., Dayathilake, L., Gasser, T., Grassi, G., & Pilli, R. (2024). Chapter 7: Current levels of CDR. In Smith, S. M. et al., (Eds.), The state of carbon dioxide removal 20242nd Edition. The State of Carbon Dioxide Removal. 10.17605/OSF.IO/F85QJ
  67. Portmann, R., Beyerle, U., Davin, E., Fischer, E. M., De Hertog, S. & Schemm, S. (2022). Global forestation and deforestation affect remote climate via adjusted atmosphere and ocean circulation. Nature Communications, 13, 5569. 10.1038/s41467-022-33279-9
  68. Qin, Z., Zhu, Y., Canadell, J. G., Chen, M., Li, T., Mishra, U., Yuan, W., et al. (2024). Global spatially explicit carbon emissions from land-use change over the past six decades (1961–2020). One Earth, 7(5), 835847. 10.1016/j.oneear.2024.04.002
  69. Reick, C., Raddatz, T., Pongratz, J., & Claussen, M. (2010). Contribution of anthropogenic land cover change emissions to pre-industrial atmospheric CO2. Tellus B, 62(5), 329336. 10.1111/j.1600-0889.2010.00479.x
  70. Sanderman, J., Hengl, T., & Fiske, G. J. (2017). Soil carbon debt of 12,000 years of human land use. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114(36), 95759580. 10.1073/pnas.1706103114
  71. Schwingshackl, C., Obermeier, W. A., Bultan, S., Grassi, G., Canadell, J. G., Friedlingstein, P., Gasser, T., Houghton, R. A., Kurz, W. A., Sitch, S., et al. (2022). Differences in land-based mitigation estimates reconciled by separating natural and land-use co2 fluxes at the country level. One Earth, 5(12), 13671376. 10.1016/j.oneear.2022.11.009
  72. Sitch, S., Friedlingstein, P., Gruber, N., Jones, S. D., Murray- Tortarolo, G., Ahlström, A., Doney, S. C., Graven, H., Heinze, C., Huntingford, C., et al. (2015). Recent trends and drivers of regional sources and sinks of carbon dioxide. Biogeosciences, 12(3), 653679. 10.5194/bg-12-653-2015
  73. Sitch, S., O’Sullivan, M., Robertson, E., Friedlingstein, P., Albergel, C., Anthoni, P., et al. (2024). Trends and drivers of terrestrial sources and sinks of carbon dioxide: An overview of the trendy project. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 38, e2024GB008102. 10.1029/2024GB008102
  74. Souza, C. M., Jr., Shimbo, J. Z., Rosa, M. R., Parente, L. L., Alencar, A. A., Rudorff, B. F., Hasenack, H., Matsumoto, M., Ferreira, L. G., Souza-Filho, P. W., et al. (2020). Reconstructing three decades of land use and land cover changes in Brazilian biomes with landsat archive and earth engine. Remote Sensing, 12(17), 2735. 10.3390/rs12172735
  75. Strassmann, K., Joos, F., & Fischer, G. (2008). Simulating effects of land use changes on carbon fluxes: Past contributions to atmospheric CO2 increases and future commitments due to losses of terrestrial sink capacity. Tellus, 60B, 583603. 10.3402/tellusb.v60i4.16946
  76. Umweltbundesamt (UBA) (2026). Treibhausgasprojektionen 2026 für Deutschland – Datentabelle. https://datacube.uba.de/vis?lc=de&df%5bds%5d=dc-release&df%5bid%5d=DF_CROSS_PROJECTION_REPORT_CORE_INDICATORS_26&df%5bag%5d=UBA&dq=.A…..&pd=,2050&to%5bTIME_PERIOD%5d=false
  77. Walker, A. P., De Kauwe, M. G., Bastos, A., Belmecheri, S., Georgiou, K., Keeling, R. F., McMahon, S. M., Medlyn, B. E., Moore, D. J. P., Norby, R. J., Zaehle, S., Anderson-Teixeira, K. J., Battipaglia, G., Brienen, R. J. W., Cabugao, K. G., Cailleret, M., Campbell, E., Canadell, J. G., Ciais, P., …, Zuidema, P. A. (2020). Integrating the evidence for a terrestrial carbon sink caused by increasing atmospheric CO2. New Phytologist, 229(5), 24132445. 10.1111/nph.16866
  78. Winckler, J., Reick, C., & Pongratz, J. (2017). Robust identification of local biogeophysical effects of land cover change in a global climate model. Journal of Climate, 30(3), 11591176. 10.1175/JCLI-D-16-0067.1
Language: English
Page range: 188 - 203
Submitted on: Feb 14, 2026
Accepted on: Jul 21, 2026
Published on: Aug 12, 2026
Published by: Stockholm University Press
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services

© 2026 Julia Pongratz, Clemens Schwingshackl, Richard A. Houghton, Michael O’Sullivan, published by Stockholm University Press
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.