Table 1
Demographic characteristics of the participants in the two samples.
| Sample 1 | Sample 2 | |
|---|---|---|
| N | 201 | 299 |
| Gender | ||
| Female | 62.7% | 98% |
| Male | 37.3% | 2% |
| Age | ||
| Range (years) | 25–64 | 22–66 |
| Mean (years) | 45.18 | 42.71 |
| Standard deviation (years) | 10.33 | 12.63 |
| Education | ||
| High school (%) | 0.0 | 0.7 |
| Basic education1 (%) | 13.9 | 5.4 |
| Bachelor’s degree2 (%) | 77.6 | 91.9 |
| Master’s degree (%) | 8.5 | 2.0 |
[i] 1 Sample 1: Bank academy, lower degree. Sample 2: 1 year university education. 2 Sample 1: Bank academy, higher degree. Sample 2: Bachelor’s degree.
Table 2
Results from explorative maximum likelihood factor analysis with oblimin rotation.
| Scenario/Item number | Scenario/Item | Impersonal orientation | Control orientation | Autonomy orientation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Imagine: You are asked to participate in a new work-project that you are unfamiliar with. How likely is it that you think/feel: | |||
| 1.1 Autonomy | Think it will be interesting to try something new | –0.19 | 0.11 | 0.43 |
| 1.2 Control | Feel that I have to do it to satisfy my manager | 0.31 | 0.42 | 0.04 |
| 1.3 Impersonal | Feel that usually I don’t like new things, so why should I try? | 0.24 | 0.40 | –0.02 |
| 2 | Imagine: Your manager has informed you that you should set goals for your work. You will probably: | |||
| 2.1 Autonomy | Set your own challenging goals | –0.20 | –0.12 | 0.61 |
| 2.2 Control | Feel pressured to set yourself goals | 0.17 | 0.54 | 0.09 |
| 2.3 Impersonal | Not want to set goals because it is not certain you will achieve them | 0.68 | 0.31 | –0.34 |
| 3 | Imagine: Your manager has informed about you the use of new procedures at work that can improve performance. The first thing you think is: | |||
| 3.1 Autonomy | This will be interesting and important for me to try | –0.31/–0.34 | –0.10/–0.17 | 0.66/0.63 |
| 3.2 Control | I will feel pressure within me to do as the manager says. | 0.35/0.34 | 0.76/0.74 | –0.13/–0.20 |
| 3.3 Impersonal | It will probably be futile for me to do it | 0.64/0.62 | 0.41/0.41 | –0.37/–0.43 |
| 4 | Imagine: Your manager suggests new routines to improve work performance. You will probably think/feel: | |||
| 4.1 Autonomy | It will be important for me to try this to see if it improves my work | –0.31 | –0.02 | 0.59 |
| 4.2 Control | I have to do this to satisfy my manager | 0.36 | 0.74 | 0.03 |
| 4.3 Impersonal | I will be afraid I won’t be able to manage the tasks | 0.39 | 0.56 | –0.02 |
| 5 | Imagine: Your work has not been performed to its usual standard. To do something about this, you will probably: | |||
| 5.1 Autonomy | Find out where the problem lies so you can set yourself new goals | –0.26 | 0.04 | 0.78 |
| 5.2 Control | Go to your manager so he/she can decide what you should do | –0.02 | 0.29 | 0.38 |
| 5.3 Impersonal | Ignore the problem, as it is difficult to do something about work performance | 0.76 | 0.34 | –0.31 |
| 6 | Imagine: You are in your manager’s office and you discover that there is something he/she is not satisfied with regarding your work. Your first reaction will probably be: | |||
| 6.1 Autonomy | I want to talk with my manager to figure out what I can do to carry out of my job in the best way possible | –0.34 | 0.03 | 0.83 |
| 6.2 Control | I will get a bad conscience and feel that I have to improve | 0.14 | 0.57 | 0.22 |
| 6.3 Impersonal | To feel that it is hard to do something about this; what has happened, has happened | 0.64 | 0.27 | –0.24 |
| 7 | Imagine: Your manager wants you be more self-driven and independent in your job. The first thing you think will probably be: | |||
| 7.1 Autonomy | This will be important for me to try, to see if it works | –0.37/–0.33 | –0.03/–0.09 | 0.72/0.74 |
| 7.2 Control | Feel pressure to do as my manager says | 0.12/0.10 | 0.78/0.80 | 0.03/0.03 |
| 7.3 Impersonal | It is hard to do something about things like independence, I am who I am | 0.72/0.67 | 0.34/0.34 | –0.38/–0.41 |
| 8 | Imagine: Your manager has asked you to do something about your interest in work, which has been a bit low lately. You will probably think/feel: | |||
| 8.1 Autonomy | I want to talk to my manager to see if we can find a good solution | –0.35/–0.38 | 0.04/–0.03 | 0.76/0.76 |
| 8.2 Control | Feel pressured to do something so my manager is satisfied | 0.22/0.19 | 0.80/0.82 | –0.03/–0.03 |
| 8.3 Impersonal | Think that to be honest, I cannot really change my basic interest in work | 0.76/0.70 | 0.32/0.31 | –0.41/–0.45 |
| 9 | Imagine: Your manager has asked you to take a course to strengthen your work competence. You will probably think/feel: | |||
| 9.1 Autonomy | Think that this will be interesting and exciting | –0.28/–0.29 | 0.01/–0.04 | 0.63/0.58 |
| 9.2 Control | Feel I have to do it to satisfy my manager | 0.37/0.36 | 0.74/0.73 | –0.06/–0.12 |
| 9.3 Impersonal | Feel that I have a certain competence, but there is not much I can do to change it | 0.75/0.73 | 0.26/0.28 | –0.29/–0.33 |
| 10 | Imagine: Your manager has suggested that you work with a more experienced employee to increase your job skills. You will probably think/feel: | |||
| 10.1 Autonomy | Think that this will be important for me | –0.33/–0.40 | –0.01/–0.11 | 0.71/0.76 |
| 10.2 Control | Feel pressured to do it to keep my work tasks and job | 0.36/0.38 | 0.72/0.75 | 0.01/–0.11 |
| 10.3 Impersonal | Think, to be honest, I cannot change my skill level | 0.80/0.88 | 0.21/0.23 | –0.34/–0.43 |
| 11 | Imagine: Your manager has asked you to cooperate more with your colleagues at work. You will probably think/feel/do: | |||
| 11.1 Autonomy | Find out who I should collaborate with and contact them | –0.36/–0.43 | 0.07/–0.02 | 0.71/0.74 |
| 11.2 Control | Feel pressure to cooperate on something I prefer to do alone | 0.38/0.39 | 0.59/0.60 | –0.08/–0.19 |
| 11.3 Impersonal | Feel that, frankly, I cannot do much to change my social attitude | 0.80/0.84 | 0.25/0.27 | –0.33/–0.44 |
[i] Note: Factor loadings before slash are from 33 items (11 vignettes), and factor loadings after the slash are from 18 items (6 vignettes).
Table 3
Results from the CFA in the two samples.
| Scenario/Item number | Factor loading | t-values | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sample 1 | Sample 2 | Sample 1 | Sample 2 | |
| 3 | ||||
| 3.1 Autonomy | 0.62 | 0.58 | 7.008 | 10.592 |
| 3.2 Control | 0.74 | 0.70 | 17.760 | 17.931 |
| 3.3 Impersonal | 0.67 | 0.53 | 13.516 | 6.865 |
| 7 | ||||
| 7.1 Autonomy | 0.73 | 0.68 | 11.552 | 12.404 |
| 7.2 Control | 0.69 | 0.70 | 14.889 | 15.975 |
| 7.3 Impersonal | 0.77 | 0.50 | 15.617 | 7.799 |
| 8 | ||||
| 8.1 Autonomy | 0.77 | 0.63 | 10.289 | 11.890 |
| 8.2 Control | 0.73 | 0.78 | 16.082 | 21.680 |
| 8.3 Impersonal | 0.75 | 0.57 | 10.540 | 9.550 |
| 9 | ||||
| 9.1 Autonomy | 0.59 | 0.69 | 6.674 | 8.349 |
| 9.2 Control | 0.77 | 0.77 | 20.393 | 25.864 |
| 9.3 Impersonal | 0.69 | 0.76 | 12.487 | 16.501 |
| 10 | ||||
| 10.1 Autonomy | 0.76 | 0.66 | 15.801 | 13.502 |
| 10.2 Control | 0.81 | 0.77 | 25.311 | 19.606 |
| 10.3 Impersonal | 0.75 | 0.65 | 19.207 | 12.841 |
| 11 | ||||
| 11.1 Autonomy | 0.75 | 0.70 | 14.733 | 16.272 |
| 11.2 Control | 0.65 | 0.65 | 12.483 | 15.683 |
| 11.3 Impersonal | 0.77 | 0.72 | 14.219 | 16.386 |
Table 4
Zero-order correlations among causality orientations and work-related correlates.
| Variable | Sample 1 | Sample 2 | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| M | SD | AO | CO | IO | M | SD | AO | CO | IO | |
| Autonomy orientation (AO) | 5.77 | 1.06 | – | 6.18 | 0.82 | – | ||||
| Control orientation (CO) | 3.85 | 1.34 | –0.07 | – | 3.57 | 1.55 | –0.17** | – | ||
| Impersonal orientation (IO) | 2.32 | 1.05 | –0.41*** | 0.43*** | – | 1.95 | 0.92 | –0.55*** | 0.37*** | – |
| Autonomy need satisfaction | 4.96 | 1.09 | 0.32*** | –0.08 | –0.18* | 5.46 | 1.06 | 0.31*** | –0.34*** | –0.16** |
| Competence need satisfaction | 6.12 | 0.71 | 0.38*** | –0.14* | –0.31** | 6.22 | 0.66 | 0.34*** | –0.20*** | –0.29*** |
| Relatedness need satisfaction | – | – | – | – | 5.80 | 0.98 | 0.28*** | –0.23*** | –0.13* | |
| Autonomous work motivation | 5.15 | 1.06 | 0.22** | –0.06 | –0.21** | 5.83 | 0.92 | 0.42*** | –0.26*** | –0.35*** |
| Controlled work motivation | 3.72 | 0.96 | 0.10 | 0.18* | –0.12 | 2.79 | 0.82 | 0.03 | 0.37*** | 0.07 |
| Affective commitment | 4.33 | 1.10 | 0.40*** | 0.03 | –0.08 | 5.65 | 1.05 | 0.23** | –0.23** | –0.21** |
| Turnover intentions | 2.51 | 1.34 | –0.16* | 0.03 | 0.15* | 2.29 | 1.39 | –0.17** | 0.28*** | 0.10 |
| Work engagement | – | – | – | – | – | 5.67 | 1.12 | 0.29*** | –0.26*** | –0.18** |
| Burnout | – | – | – | – | – | 3.31 | 1.40 | –0.13* | 0.32** | 0.14* |
| Gender1 | 0.63 | 0.48 | 0.22** | –0.03 | –0.11 | 1.98 | 0.14 | – | – | – |
| Age | 45.18 | 10.33 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.12 | 42.71 | 12.63 | –0.14* | –0.05 | 0.08 |
[i] Note: M = Mean, SD = Standard Deviation, *** p < 0.001, ** p < 0.01, * p < 0.05. Skew values varied for Sample 1 from –0.30 to 0.75, except for a value of –1.61 for autonomy orientation. For Sample 2 skew values varied from –1.26 to 1.18. For gender: 1 = males; 2 = females. 1 Correlations between gender and causality orientations are Spearman’s point biserial, which are omitted for the dental hygienists because there were only six males in the sample.