The relationship between employees and employers can be described as a game of exchange, or a psychological contract that governs mutual obligations between the parties (Bergmo-Prvulovic, 2022; Shore & Tetrick, 1994). Employees provide their employers with knowledge in exchange for wages, long-term employment contracts, and career opportunities within the organisation.
However, in recent years, this reciprocity between the parties is challenged by discourses which seek to liberate employers from any long-term obligations towards the employers, thus gaining flexibility and strengthening the organisations adaptability in an ever faster changing competitive environment (Baruch, 2004; Bergmo-Prvulovic, 2022; Bolman & Deal, 2014). In a working world increasingly characterised by mobility rather than stability, the pursuit of flexibility also applies to the individual who is expected to remain an employable life-long learner (Savickas, 2012). A long-term employment relationship entails a risk that the individual’s knowledge is not developed in line with what is in demand in the future labour market (Sennett, 1998).
Shorter and less binding employment relationships could imply that the motivation to share knowledge and the basis for forming new knowledge is reduced. Studies have shown that knowledge sharing is connected to long-term commitment (e.g. Luo et al., 2021). A development where the flow of knowledge is disrupted is not desirable, regardless of whether it is considered from an individual, organisational, market or socio-economic perspective.
In this practice article, that builds on our experiences from a Norwegian context, we argue for a shift in the traditional performance interview towards what we call career interviews. Performance interviews are not a statutory requirement in Norway, but an employee’s entitlement to co-determination at their workplace is. Section 4.2 of the Working Environment Act (2005) states that employees shall have the opportunity for professional and personal development while working. Underpinned by relevant theory, we will show how a reconstruction of the traditional performance interview into what we call career interview may restore and maintain the balance in the game of exchange, and secure knowledge sharing processes to the benefit of both the organisation and the individual. The article builds on a hypothetical case.
Traditionally, career theory and organisational theory have not been seen in conjunction. But in modern working life, where individuals and organisations are sharing a context characterised by uncertainty and continuous restructuring, these disciplines have a lot to contribute to each other (Bergmo-Prvulovic, 2015; Collin, 1988). In the everchanging world of work, both the individual and organisations depends on the continuous replenishment of sought-after knowledge to stay competitive in the labour market and business world. The knowledge in high demand is often referred to as tacit knowledge (Nonaka et al., 2001), soft skills (Heckman & Kautz, 2012) or career competence (Prince et al., 2015). This kind of knowledge/competence consists of theoretical knowledge (knowing what), practical knowledge (knowing how) and is influenced by our values, believes and motivation (Polanyi, 1966). Curiosity, empathy and flexibility are examples of complex and composed competencies (Illeris, 2012). Career commitment and choices concerning education and work relates to changing life phases and a constantly changing labour market. To understand the complexity associated with abstract concepts such as careers, we need to look for new concepts that can explain this complexity (Bergmo-Prvulovic, 2022).
We will place particular emphasis on career learning and career competence perspectives and show how tools from the National Quality Framework for Career Guidance in Norway (Bakke et al., 2020), that are underpinned by both career theory and organisational theory, can contribute towards sharing and co-creation/construction of new knowledge between individuals and organisations. How the proposed career interviews can contribute to co-construction will be elaborated in the discussion section of this article.
By focusing on the mutual interest in knowledge creating in the proposed career interview between employee and employer, we argue that the game of exchange can be rebalanced without long term commitments, thus enabling a modern working relationship which allows for the necessary flexibility and strengthens the position of both parties.
Theoretical underpinnings
Before presenting the content of the proposed career interview, we will highlight the theoretical underpinnings our argumentation builds on.
Organisational perspective on knowledge sharing
Although studies recognise that the employees and their knowledge is as a source of organisational competitive advantage, we do not fully understand how to attract highly skilled employees and motivate them to perform in the best interest of the organisation (Gagnè & Howard, 2016).
The term organisational commitment is often used to describe the connection between employee’s intention to stay in the organisation and the extent to which they are motivated to participate in knowledge sharing activities (Allen, 2016; Wziatek-Stasko et al., 2022). However, when the long-term dimension and organisational commitment diminishes, it creates an imbalance in the work relationship which threatens to disrupt the transfer of knowledge in organisations (Baruch, 2004; Waterman et al., 1994).
In the modern world of work we must commit to different organisations for a shorter period (Savickas, 2012). In a context where obligations between employer and employee are weakened, we believe that motivation to share sought-after knowledge presuppose that the sharing and co-creation of knowledge contributes to and strengthens competencies which is transferable to other organisations and roles in the employee’s career.
Self-Determination Theory – Individual perspective
According to Self-Determination Theory (SDT), the choices we make, and perception of well-being relates to our sense of control and intrinsic motivation (Cherry, 2022; Ryan & Deci, 2017). The degree of self-determination (autonomy) affects the individual’s motivation to participate in knowledge-sharing processes (Halvari et al., 2021).
The concepts of career autonomy, career relatedness and career competence links the principles of Self-Determination Theory with the fields of occupational psychology and career psychology (Chen, 2017). In this article these concepts links organisational and career theory and form the basis for how the performance interview takes place in practice.
Career autonomy refers to the need to be independent and to make one’s own decisions about one’s career. Career relatedness refers to the dynamic process that takes place between career, life events and social interactions which need to reflect choices made about work and education. Career choices only make sense when they can be related to and understood based on a coherent whole. Career competence refers to different forms of competencies that are acquired from and can be used in different areas of life (Chen, 2017).
Career competences – the content of career interviews
In this article, we have chosen to explore how career competence, as described in the National Quality Framework for Career Guidance in Norway (Bakke et al., 2020), can contribute positively towards the ongoing game of exchange between employers and employees in modern working life. The Quality Framework provides the following definition of career competence:
Career competence is a skill that empowers people to manage their career, through change and transition. It is the skill to know and understand oneself and one’s context, to act and make choices, and to manage dilemmas and tensions associated with life, learning and work. It includes the insight that individuals are shaped by their life circumstances and actions but can also influence and shape their own and society’s future. (Bakke et al., 2020, p. 52)
In the quality framework, career competences are systemised based on different areas of exploration and learning. These areas are overarching and generic indications of topics that it may be relevant to explore, and the goal is to develop and utilise the career competencies required at the time and in the situation in which the individual finds himself/herself. These areas of competence offer supervisors and employees a language for and possible organisation of exploration and learning in a performance interview (p. 67). In the quality framework, five areas of competence have been selected: 1) Me in context, 2) Opportunities and limitations, 3) Choice and chance, 4) Change and stability and 5) Adaptation and resistance.
Two words are used to describe each area of competence. The model has a total of ten words, each of which represents possible areas for exploration and learning. The ten words that jointly form five-word pairs are intended to highlight possible dilemmas and tensions that may be present and have significance when someone must deal with life, learning and work in a process of change and transition. Furthermore, based on their systemic underpinning, they cover areas both relevant for the individual and organisation that can be useful balancing the game of exchange. Working on dealing with the tensions and contradictions associated with the relevant topics is referred to as structured career learning. In our context, this will be a process between employers and employees whereby traditional performance interviews are developed to become career interviews.
Structured career learning – the process of career interviews
In the National Quality Framework for Career Guidance, structured career learning is understood as the structured learning process that will contribute towards the development of specific career competences (Bakke et al., 2020, p. 61). It is emphasised that career learning always takes place in a context. Career learning must therefore be dynamic and take into account the various factors that can influence the implementation of structured career learning. The competence areas discussed in the previous section offer employers and employees a language and a structure for exploration and learning when the aim is to achieve career competence by engaging in what we choose to call career interviews. Career interviews differ from the traditional performance interviews, with its emphasis on both concrete professional development (tasks, new projects, etc.) and development of career competences relevant for both individual and organisation.
Practical utilisation – career interviews between employers and employees
As a follow-up of National Quality Framework for Career Guidance, various resources have been developed for the practical implementation of career learning activities. As a starting point for the development of career interviews, we have chosen to highlight the so-called conversation starters. Conversation starters are examples of different ways of initiating reflection, exploration, and learning. During career interviews the word pairs provide ample opportunities for discussing and exploring different perspectives of different issues from different angles. They also provide an opportunity to raise the awareness of the employer and employee about any potential tensions that should be addressed at the workplace. Coincidences are characterised by the very fact that they are not planned. Oxymorons help to arouse our curiosity, but they also refer to dilemmas or tensions, about something that cannot be easily resolved. Conversation starters can be used to introduce career talks, move on from one topic to another, or to jointly reflect on a specific question. One example of a conversation starter on the topic of change and stability is “Think of a change that has occurred in your life. What did you learn from the experience that you could use in the future?”. “What would your work situation be like if there were no changes?” Another key topic in modern working life is the relationship between adaptation and resistance. Here are a few examples of conversation starters: “In what way does the situation you are in now require adaptation?” and “Place yourself on a scale of 1 to 10, where 10 represents very satisfied with your current working situation and 1 represents very dissatisfied with your current work situation”. Although the conversation starters are individual-oriented, the purpose of the dialogue following the starters, in the context of this article, is to raise mutual awareness and uncover possibilities, both in terms of the organisation’s contributions towards the individual’s career and in terms of the individual’s role in the organisation’s development.
It is important for both the employee and the employer to understand how to use, develop and acquire more knowledge in the employment relationship. “Opportunities and limitations” is an example of a conversational pair that allows for a dialogue alternating between individual and organisational needs, merging the different perspectives and creating a common understanding of the concept of career. “Do you have competences you do not use at work?” is a question that can bring forth competences which have not previously been explicit or seen in connection with work tasks.
In career guidance interviews, one experiences that individuals need time and assistance in order to identify what competence they actually have. The challenge is not to account for the formal competence and specific skills that are acquired from education and previous employment, but to highlight competences that are more difficult to define such as creativity and adaptability.
Career competence is crucial for the individual’s opportunities on the job market. Learning competencies and skills is a self-reinforcing process between intentional and casual learning. Throughout one’s career one is motivated to acquire new knowledge in order to cope with changes in working life. These continuous and intentional learning activities raise awareness of the more casual competences that we acquire in different roles and phases of life. Reflection on casual learning puts all learning in a larger and more meaningful context, which in turn will provide motivation to engage in more intentional learning (Chen, 2017).
To attract sought-after labour and motivate employees to share knowledge, it is also important to show how employees can develop their own competences within an organisation.
A conversation based on the concepts of opportunities and limitations is an important clarification of expectations in this context.
The concept pairs of “adaptation and resistance” and “choice and chance” can develop conversations from opportunities for learning and knowledge development to looking at the framework conditions for such processes.
Career autonomy is about the feeling of being in control of your own career. How we perceive ourselves, what interests we have and what makes sense all guide the choices we make in a lifelong career perspective (Chen, 2017).
Reflections on adaptations, choices and autonomy are influenced by the extent to which we perceive that we can influence our surroundings. A key question in motivational psychology is whether we regard ourselves as being self-determining individuals or passive pawns in a game (Nygård, 1993).
Our careers are affected by both framework factors that we cannot control, and events that we have influenced or initiated (Krumboltz, 2009). The adjustments one needs to make and the extent to which one can influence the development of one’s own working relationship are key tensions that ought to be discussed by employees and employers.
The conversation pairs “me – context” and “change – stability” are based on the premise that we are constantly in a context whereby something is stable and other things change. Family relationships, life situations and health are factors that influence our needs and our perception of changes and stability in working life (Bakke et al., 2020). It is important for both employers and employees to find a balance between flexibility and security in the relationship.
Discussion
In the proposed structure of career interviews, co-creation and co-construction holds a pivotal role. In the Nordic context, which is where this article departs from, co- construction is highlighted as one out of four characteristics of the societal structure (Haug et al., 2020). In the discussion section, we will argue why the proposed career interviews resonate with this contextual feature.
Co-creation of knowledge and competence
Career development is usually approached either from an individual or from an organisational perspective. From an individual perspective, ownership and control of careers is placed with individuals and tones down their affiliations with organisations where careers are developed. However, in a traditional Human Resource framework, careers are based on the needs of the organisation rather than the individual (Inkson, 2004). These two perspectives are often regarded as contradictions, but in a working life characterised by an increasing change of pace and higher competence requirements, career development and organisational development share context and have much to contribute to each other (Bergmo-Prvulovic, 2015; Collin, 1988).
The traditional notion of the exchange between the parties as a one-way supply line of knowledge from individual to organisation is obsolete. The relationship between employees and employers must be based on the premise that the replenishment of knowledge and expertise is crucial for both parties (Falch, 2019).
The term “employability” represents social currents that, according to Kjærgård (2018), will increase individual responsibilities and autonomy. To achieve the goal of socio-economic development, employees should be solely responsible for bearing the costs involved in adapting to the changing needs of the labour market (Sultana, 2018). By changing the focus from “employment” to “employability” (Waterman et al., 1994), individual employees embark on a lifelong learning project under which they need to perform to the best of their abilities under different working relationships of varying lengths (Savickas, 2012).
As noted by Bergmo-Prvulovic (2020), such a development entails an imbalance in the game of exchange between the parties involved in working life, which could imply that the motivation to share knowledge and the basis for forming new knowledge is reduced. This results in knowledge hiding or hoarding instead of knowledge sharing (Silva de Garcia et al., 2022). A development whereby both employees and employers act opportunistically is not desirable, regardless of whether it is considered from an individual, organisational, market or socio-economic perspective.
Cooperation often provides the best outcomes for the parties involved. The instigation and development of cooperation does not rely on altruistic parties, which base their actions on what serves the other party. It is sufficient to acknowledge that one’s own interests are best served by cooperation between the parties (Axelrod, 1984). Knowledge sharing and co-creation of new competence is a collaboration that benefits both employees and employers. Acquiring new knowledge is a prerequisite for the motivation to share knowledge. These processes require openness and communication (Van den Hoof & de Ridder, 2004).
If one is to free oneself from long-term obligations in an employment relationship without compromising knowledge sharing and competence development, it is necessary to establish how the time one spends within an organisation fits into one’s career and strengthens one’s position on the labour market on the day the employment ends. This requires clarification of one’s expectations before employment, and a continuous dialogue based on career learning and career competence during employment.
Conclusion
To facilitate and create motivation for knowledge sharing and knowledge development, we suggest that employers and employees, both during recruitment and during the employment relationship, engage in an open dialogue and clarify their expectations in the form of career interviews. The conversation starters in the National Quality Framework for Career Guidance are a specific and practical tool that can initiate reflection and clarify tensions between employees and employers. The conversation starters pave the way for an understanding that the game of exchange between employees and employers is not a zero-sum game, in which everyone fights for the biggest slice of the pie, but a collaboration whereby sharing existing knowledge and co-creating more new knowledge is the most important thing for both parties.
Given that this text is based on a hypothetical case, we strongly suggest further research in different organisational contexts on the effect of the proposed career interviews. In this, potential relevance for knowledge-intensive organisations versus work environments characterised by manual and automated tasks. Secondly, whether the proposed interview depends on a particular type of organisational culture for learning and knowledge sharing.
The long term-term commitment previously offered by organisations needs to be replaced by security in a broader perspective. Based on the conversation starters, career interviews can illuminate how the employment makes sense for the individual’s career in a lifelong learning perspective.
Competing Interests
One of the authors, has been an editorial board member of NJTCG journal in 2020–2021. The authors have no other conflict of interests to note.