A Cross-National Analysis of the (Re)actualization of Work Experience Placement as a Career Education Activity in Sweden and Denmark

Sweden

In Sweden a whole school approach (Rosvall & Eshaghbeigi-Hosseini, 2023) is applied, meaning that all school staff share responsibility for CEG, and compulsory schools are responsible for supporting young people’s ability to make choices regarding further education and vocational orientation (Lgr22). The National Agency for Education (SNAE, 2013) identifies three forms of intervention: teaching and information provision (by counsellors and teachers) and career interviews provided by career counsellors (Kettunen et al., 2023). Swedish legislation states that students should have access to a qualified career guidance counsellor but does not stipulate the extent of associated teaching or number of lessons (Einarsdottir et al., 2023; Kettunen et al., 2023; Rosvall & Eshaghbeigi-Hosseini, 2023). It is the responsibility of teachers to “support individual pupils when making choices regarding their further education and to assist in establishing contacts with schools that will be receiving the pupils, as well as with organisations, companies and others who can help to enrich the school’s activities and to establish it in the surrounding society” (Lgr22:17). Career guidance counsellors or staff members with an equivalent role should “inform and guide pupils prior to the next stage of their education and vocational orientation, focusing particularly on opportunities for pupils with functional impairments, and assisting the study and vocational guidance efforts of other members of staff” (Lgr22).

Due to the deregulation of schools in 1991, which shifted responsibility for compulsory education from the state to municipality level, the content of CEG is not described in detail in either legislation or the curriculum, leaving it to the municipalities and schools to decide how to provide CEG activities (Kettunen et al., 2023; Rosvall & Eshaghbeigi-Hosseini, 2023). In 2018 a change to the school act reinstated a requirement for schools to provide WEP as a CEG activity, following its abolishment in 1994 (SFS, 2010:800). However, although WEP was not mandatory during the period 1994–2018 it is estimated that 80–90% of schools offered it (Prop. 2017/18:24). In all Swedish curricula between 1955 and its abolition in 1994 (Lgr62; Lgr69; Lgr80; Lpo94; U-55) WEP was described as a CEG activity that can give the young people a real view of working life. The curricula claimed that this broadens their perspective of themselves and various professions and contributes to young people making realistic and well-founded educational choices. These curricula also described WEP as a tool that could contribute to the solution of some societal challenges, such as a gender-divided labour market, issues related to social inheritance, and dropouts.

Denmark

In Denmark, CEG in compulsory school is provided on the basis of the topic of ‘Education and Work’ (‘Uddannelse og job’) (BUVM, 2022a; Einarsdottir et al., 2023; Kettunen et al., 2023; Thomsen et al., 2024). CEG is intended to enable young people to make informed education and vocational choices by enhancing their awareness of their abilities, interests and possibilities (BUVM, 2022b). ‘Education and Work’ is a compulsory topic that teachers are to integrate into all compulsory school subjects at every grade, but the extent of teaching is not regulated and there is no specified individual timetable (Einarsdottir et al., 2023; Kettunen et al., 2023; Thomsen et al., 2024). A new curriculum for teacher education (Regeringen, 2022) implemented by 2023 includes an elective subject on Education and Work, but generally there are no specific demands regarding the qualifications of ‘Education and Work’ teachers (Kettunen et al., 2023; Thomsen et al., 2024). Activities within ‘Education and Work’ are to be planned in cooperation with full-time career counsellors with legally defined qualifications employed in municipal youth guidance units (‘Den kommunale ungeindsats’) (Einarsdottir et al., 2023; Thomsen et al., 2024; BUVM, 2022a, §7). The career guidance provided by these units is to build on the knowledge and skills that students acquire in ‘Education and Work’, to help them make informed and qualified choices to facilitate transition from compulsory lower secondary education to upper secondary education (vocational or general) or full-time work (BUVM, 2022b).

In the Danish legislation and curriculum, the CEG content are described in more detail, and specific activities are mentioned (Thomsen et al., 2024). In cooperation with municipal youth guidance units, lower secondary schools (grades 7–10) must provide collective, group and individual career guidance, including introduction to the vocational and academic upper secondary programs, the application program for enrolment in upper secondary education, the national digital guidance portal (ug.dk) and the digital career guidance service (eGuidance) (Thomsen et al., 2024). It is also expected to provide information meetings for pupils and their parents, as well as introductory and taster courses for upper secondary programs (mandatory in grade 8 and 10) (Thomsen et al., 2024). In 2017 and 2018 changes were made regarding the access and right to WEP, although the schools were not required to organize WEP (BUVM, 2022a).

Policy development for WEP in Sweden

In Sweden a special investigator was appointed by the government in December 2013 to submit proposals for supplementing the upper secondary vocational technology programme (TP) with one or more industrial technical orientations with clear career outcomes (Dir. 2013:122). The aim was to create attractive technical training (Dir. 2013:122). In the directive the decline of applications for TP is problematized in relation to the importance of manufacturing industry for Swedish society, the necessity of access to good technical competence for Swedish industry’s global competitiveness, and the lack of interest in TP among young people. Thus, it is termed a mismatch problem. The inquiry was extended in 2014 (Dir. 2014:50), and again twice in 2015 (Dir. 2015:15; Dir. 2015:84). During the process it was renamed ‘The Vocational Program Inquiry’ and tasked with submitting proposals for strengthening the quality and attractiveness of all of VET, facilitating young people’s transition from school to working life and strengthening the national competence supply (Dir. 2014:50; Dir. 2015:84).

In 2017 the Inquiry submitted a proposal entitled ‘Choosing vocation’ (Välja yrke) (SOU 2015:97) for solving the problem of young people’s lack of interest in VET and the school’s insufficiency in preparing them to make “well founded” educational choices” (SOU 2015:97 p.55). The proposal strongly emphasizes a need to improve CEG in compulsory school, and particularly WEP as a tool for supporting more “conscious career choices” (SOU 2015:97 p. 55). Thus, it recommends mandatory WEP and an investigation of ways to improve CEG. In the documents there is no mentioning of the major reform of upper secondary education implemented in 2011 (Gy11) which was intended to enhance vocational students’ preparation for working life. According to Statistics Sweden the reform can be related to a major decline in applications for VET programmes. During 2011–2016 on average 38 percent of students applied for a vocational program, compared to 53 percent in 2005–2010 (Statistics Sweden, 2017).

In October 2017 the Swedish Government presented a proposal entitled “Strengthened connection between school and working life” (Stärkt koppling mellan skola och arbetsliv) (Prop. 2017/18:24) that recommends mandatory WEP. Subsequently in November 2017 a special investigator was appointed to submit proposals to develop schools’ CEG programs to provide all students “equal opportunities to make well-considered choices based on good knowledge of educational paths and working life” (Dir. 2017:116, authors translation). In January 2019 the special investigator submitted a proposal, “Future choice – career guidance for the individual and society” (Framtidsval – karriärvägledning för individ och samhälle) (SOU 2019:4), entailing a comprehensive reform of CEG in the Swedish educational and vocational system. Due to the inability to reach a political agreement in the Swedish parliament, the reform was never implemented.

While the investigation was ongoing, the Swedish parliament agreed to re-introduce mandatory WEP in 2018. It should be noted that although it had not been mandatory for 24 years, some form of WEP had been organized for pupils to experience the world of work. However, these activities are described as independent elements that were rarely used in the school’s teaching (SOU 2002:120; SOU 2019:4) and a great need for development had been recognized (Lundahl et al., 2020; SOU 2015:97). Making WEP mandatory was regarded as a way of securing the school’s responsibility to deliver more sufficient WEP. This sufficiency is described in terms of the school’s responsibility to provide equal access to placements for all pupils to prevent students’ career choices being limited by gender, social or cultural background (Prop. 2017/18:24). WEP of a minimum duration of 10 days was believed to be essential for young people to have a real opportunity to experience and obtain knowledge of the world of work. It was also argued that since many schools and municipalities already provided WEP, mandatory WEP would have minor economic impacts (Prop. 2017/18:24).

Policy development for WEP in Denmark

In Denmark a drop in applications for VET programmes directly after compulsory education from 30% of the cohort in 2000 to 19% of the cohort in 2013, and a dropout rate of almost 50% from VET programmes, were problematized (Regeringen, 2013), even though the number also includes students who changed to other programs, mostly connected to the inability to obtain the apprenticeships required to complete VET (see also Helms Jørgensen et al., 2019). In addition, a comprehensive reform of VET entitled “Skilled workers for the future – Better and more attractive upper secondary vocational education” (Faglært til fremtiden – bedre og mere attraktive erhvervsuddannelser) was initiated in October 2013 by the Social Democratic-led government (Regeringen, 2013). The argument for the reform was formulated as a need for skilled workers, described as ”people who can use both head and hands”, and ”talented” young people who can ”think creatively and practically” as requirements for creating ”new jobs within production, construction, and service industries” (Regeringen, 2013, p. 7). To achieve the goals a need for more young people to choose VET directly after compulsory education was assumed, and the lack of interest among young people was ascribed to the lack of focus on VET over the years, resulting in an apparent lack of sufficient attractiveness.

The reform thus supplements a target of at least 95% of cohorts completing upper secondary education that was set by the Danish Parliament in 2006 with the following VET-related goals: at least 25% choosing VET directly after compulsory school in 2020, rising to 30% in 2025, with at least 50% and 67% of those choosing VET completing their education in 2020 and 2025, respectively (Regeringen, 2013). The reform also entailed a comprehensive reform of the Danish career guidance system, including cuts in funds to finance the VET-reform (Jensen, 2020). Provisions under the heading ‘Focusing guidance activities’ markedly reduced the access to individual career guidance through a shift in timing of ‘the educational readiness assessment’ (uddannelsesparathedsvurdering) that was introduced in 2010 (BUVM, 2010) from 9^th to 8^th grade (Regeringen, 2013). This change aimed at identifying young people who needed additional and tailored guidance earlier. It was assumed that 20% of young people in compulsory education would be assessed as ‘not ready’ and thus in need of individual career guidance. The remaining 80% would only be entitled to collective CEG and digital career guidance (Regeringen, 2013). The reform thus introduced digital career guidance, and a unit of digital career guidance counsellors (eVejledning) was established under the Ministry of Education.

In 2017 an agreement was reached between the liberal-conservative government and the Danish People’s Party to change the Law on Career Guidance (Vejledningsloven) by introducing “a practical expertise dimension in the educational readiness assessment” (praksisfaglig dimension i uddannelsesparathedsvurderingen) (Regeringen, 2017). This was regarded as a means to clarify the young peoples’ practical competences and increase awareness of their importance (without significant additional costs), thus raising the attractiveness of VET for some students “who have only set eyes on” the academic tracks of upper secondary education (Regeringen, 2017, p. 1).

In 2018 students’ practical expertise was also the focus of an agreement between the liberal-conservative government, Social Democratic Party, Danish People’s Party, Danish Social Liberal Party, and Green Left on what is called strengthened practical expertise (Styrket praksisfaglighed) (Regeringen, 2018). The practical expertise covered not only the ability” to use a hammer and angle grinder” but also entrepreneurship skills, including ”inventiveness” and ”creativity” and the ”ability to translate methods and theories into concrete products” (Regeringen, 2018, p.1). Practical expertise is thought of as a way of promoting “several different aspects of the individual student’s versatile development and Bildung” (Regeringen, 2018, p.1), which compulsory school did not do sufficiently as they were too academic. The problematization of young people’s lack of interest is particularly described as a lack of interest in natural science and technology (regarded as the school subjects that the labour market had the highest competence needs) (Regeringen, 2018, p.1).

Another identified factor was lack of awareness of the career possibilities connected to VET. It was assumed that enhancement of more practical aspects in the schools’ teaching would ”naturally” lead to more young people becoming ”aware” of VET as a career path and increase their interest in natural science and technology (Regeringen, 2018, p.1). The school’s insufficiency was described in terms of being too academic and not practical enough, as ”the application-oriented, practical and business-oriented elements in the teaching were not good enough” (Regeringen, 2018, p.1). This insufficiency was partly attributed to insufficient cooperation between compulsory education and VET schools. Thus, the reform introduced a two-year mandatory practical/music elective subject in grades 7 and 8, strengthened practical elements of the mandatory project assignment in grade 9, provided the right to at least one week of WEP for all pupils in grades 8 and 9, and initiated a project to support the development and implementation of practical expertise in the school subjects (Regeringen, 2018, p.2).

The provision of a right to WEP for all pupils was based on the assumption that the schools and school boards did not support pupils who wanted to participate in WEP (Regeringen, 2018, p. 4). However, obtaining a WEP placement remained the responsibility of the young people (and their parents). According to the Danish Evaluation Institute WEP was used to varying extents in Danish compulsory schools. In a report from 2015 18% of surveyed teachers stated that all the students in their classes had WEP in 8th grade, 27% stated that some students had WEP in 8th grade, 51% stated that their students did not have WEP, and 5% had no knowledge of it (EVA, 2015). According to another report from 2019, 62% of surveyed young people stated that they had taken the opportunity to acquire WEP in either the 8th or 9th grade (EVA, 2019). The report concluded that many students did not obtain WEP due to the relatively large personal efforts required to organize and complete it.

The reforms and CEG provision

Although the school’s preparation of the young people was a central concern, the representation of WEP (and CEG) in the studied material expresses a certain view on CEG as instrumental for employability and economic growth rather than the pedagogical and civic dimensions of CEG.

This problem representation affects CEG in some interesting ways. In Denmark, the VET reform in 2013 (Regeringen, 2013) entailed a marked reduction in access to individual career guidance and introduction of more collective forms of CEG. Subsequent reforms (Regeringen, 2017, 2018) introduced a practical expertise dimension as part of the school’s teaching, suggesting a shift of focus from career guidance to CEG activities, and thus a stronger emphasis on teachers’ responsibility to prepare young people for educational choices. In addition, career guidance counsellors’ role became more limited to the young people ‘in danger’ of not completing upper secondary education (Regeringen, 2013). In Sweden, although the need for reforms of CEG has been highlighted, the whole school approach has been criticized (Lovén, 2015; Lundahl et al., 2020) and a sweeping reform of schools’ CEG provisions has been proposed (SOU 2019:4), the only major change has been in access to WEP.

As the reform of VET in Denmark was funded by cuts in career guidance provision, and neither the introduction of practical expertise and educational readiness assessments nor mandatory WEP in Sweden was supposed to entail significant additional costs, an economic rationale may have underpinned the choices of these ’solutions’. Hence, the ‘solutions’ could have been chosen at least partly because they seemed to be relatively easy, financially painless options. This raises the question whether the implementation of policies addressing WEP is adequately supported by CEG provisions for schools to provide sufficient preparation? Doubts can clearly be raised since research suggests that isolated episodes of WEP alone do not necessarily increase young people’s interest in, or knowledge of, VET. It must be placed within a systematic and coherent CEG program (Thomsen et al., 2024).

WEP as a tool for increasing interest in VET?

It is also questionable whether the policies addressing WEP expressed in the Swedish and Danish documents are likely to meet the goals to increase young people’s interest in VET? As recent Danish research (Skovhus, 2018; Skovhus & Thomsen, 2020) has shown, the focus in CEG on students’ education choices affects their participation and learning in connection with CEG activities. When the students have chosen an educational path, they lose interest in expanding their knowledge and do not get involved in the activities (Skovhus, 2018). Several Danish development projects on CEG and WEP have shown the importance of systematic, coherent CEG programs for young people to regard VET as a viable, attractive option (Louw, 2020; Skovhus, 2022). It is difficult to place WEP in a coherent CEG process if schools are not required to organize WEP, WEP is individualized, and thus its timing for students may vary, as in the Danish case. In the Swedish context, the quality requirements for the schools’ organization of WEP are limited to its duration (in days) and equality of access to placements, which leaves it to the schools to choose how to organize and frame it depending on local resources and priorities.

The success of coherent and progressive CEG processes also reportedly depends on schools’ and workplaces’ abilities to cooperate, which can be both demanding and time-consuming (Beigi, 2019; Skovhus, 2022). The Swedish and Danish documents do not mention either responsibilities or expectations of the labour market or employers regarding young people’s experiences of the world of work. Responsibility for solving ‘the mismatch problem’ was laid upon the young people and the schools, rather than even partially on the labour market with the recognized ‘need’. The changes to WEP-related legislation tended to individualize ‘the mismatch problem’ and cemented the view of compulsory school as the site for solving structural societal problems. This leaves it up to schools or the young people to secure adequate placements and the good-will of employers. How this affects the versatility and suitability of working life experiences that young people can obtain through WEP requires more research.

The framing of WEP and social justice

Finally, previous research has shown that the organization of WEP strongly influences young people’s opportunities to participate in it and the nature of their learning, especially in terms of social justice (Ahier et al., 2000; Bimrose et al., 2014; Francis et al., 2005; Hatcher & Le Gallais, 2008; Hedenus & Wikstrand, 2015; Osgood et al., 2006; Skovhus & Poulsen, 2021). Placing responsibility for obtaining placements on the pupils as in the Danish case (Regeringen, 2013), could raise social justice concerns regarding access to WEP, as previous studies have identified social strata-based differences in the places and occupations that students can access (Hirasawa & Sundelin, 2003; Osgood et al., 2006). In Sweden it has been argued that the introduction of mandatory WEP and schools’ responsibility to ensure that students have equal access to WEP could promote social justice and mitigate limitations of young peoples’ educational choices by gender, social or cultural background (Prop. 2017/18:24).

It is questionable whether access to WEP is the only measure of the promotion of social justice. If expansion of the space of valued options is an important element of social justice, as suggested by Skovhus & Poulsen (2021), the framing of WEP as a learning process may also entail issues of social justice. Skovhus & Poulsen (2021) argue that it is not enough for young people to know about different vocations. They must feel that they are genuine alternatives, i.e., that they could actually do these jobs and would be seen as equally worthy of social recognition regardless of the path they choose. Broadening young peoples’ educational and vocational horizons require the promotion of curiosity and reflection through preparation and follow-up on activities that increases awareness of different educational and vocational paths (e.g. Skovhus & Poulsen, 2021). Røise (2020) highlights the importance of the framing of CE-activities and the role of reflection, after finding that much time is often devoted to students’ presentations of their experiences in follow-up activities, leaving too little time for reflection in Norwegian settings. Whether the framing of WEP as a learning process in the Swedish and Danish schools can address this issue requires more empirical research.