References
- Brown B. Daring greatly: how the courage to be vulnerable transforms the way we live, love, parent, and lead. New York: Avery: 2012.
- Santoro G, Sideli L, Musetti A, Schimmenti A. The relationship between childhood trauma and shame: the mediating role of dissociation. Eur J Investig Health Psychol Educ. 2025;15(8):151. https://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe15080151
- BibleGateway.com. Genesis 3:6–10, New International Version [Internet]. Grand Rapids (MI): Bible Gateway; c1995–2025 [cited 2025 Nov 22]. Available from: https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%203%3A6-10&version=NIV
- BibleGateway.com. Romans 8:1, New International Version [Internet]. Grand Rapids (MI): Bible Gateway; c1995–2025 [cited 2025 Nov 22]. Available from: https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Romans%208%3A1&version=NIV
- BibleGateway.com. Isaiah 54:4, New International Version [Internet]. Grand Rapids (MI): Bible Gateway; c1995– 2025 [cited 2025 Nov 21]. Available from: https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Isaiah+54%3A4&version=NIV
- Wojcik KD, Cox DW, Kealy D. Adverse childhood experiences and shame- and guilt-proneness: examining the mediating roles of interpersonal problems in a community sample. Child Abuse Negl. 2019;98:104233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104233
- Gee DG, Cohodes EM. Influences of caregiving on development: a sensitive period for biological embedding of predictability and safety cues. Curr Dir Psychol Sci. 2021;30(5):376-83. https://doi.org/10.1177/09637214211015673
- Buchanan LP. There is no place for shame. From change your story – change your life [Internet]. 2019 May 13 [cited 2025 Jul 13]. Available from: https://www.lindapaulkbuchanan.com/post/there-is-no-place-for-shame
- Terrizzi JA
Jr , Shook NJ. On the origin of shame: does shame emerge from an evolved disease-avoidance architecture? Front Behav Neurosci. 2020;14:19. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2020.00019 - Cândea D-M, Szentágotai Tătar A. Shame and psychopathology: from research to clinical practice. J Cogn Behav Psychother. 2013;13(1):101-13. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/274071849_Shame_and_psychopathology_From_research_to_clinical_practice
- de Groot M, Schaafsma J, Castelain T, Malinowska K, Mann L, Ohtsubo Y, et al. Group-based shame, guilt, and regret across cultures. Eur J Soc Psychol. 2021;51(7):1198-212. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2808
- Sznycer D, Xygalatas D, Agey E, Alami S, An X-F, Ananyeva KI, et al. Cross-cultural invariances in the architecture of shame. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2018;115(39):9702-7. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1805016115
- Tangney JP, Dearing RL. Shame and guilt. New York: Guilford Press; 2002. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412950664.n388
- Luyten P, Fontaine JRJ, Corveleyn J. Does the Test of Self-Conscious Affect (TOSCA) measure maladaptive aspects of guilt and adaptive aspects of shame? An empirical investigation. Pers Individ Dif. 2002;33(8):1373-87. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(02)00197-6
- Cândea D-M, Szentágotai Tătar A. Shame proneness, guilt proneness and anxiety symptoms: a meta-analysis. J Anxiety Disord. 2018;58:78-106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2018.07.005
- Dolezal L, Lyons B. Health-related shame: an affective determinant of health? Med Humanit. 2017;43(4):257-64. https://doi.org/10.1136/medhum-2017-011186
- Ha SN. Because of who we are: a fresh perspective on Calvin’s doctrine of the image of God and human dignity. Religions. 2024;15(10):1162. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15101162
- Downie A. Christian shame and religious trauma. Religions. 2022;13(10):925. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13100925
- Zimmerman K-S, Kao GY, Dávila MT. Christian family ethics and shame: three perspectives [Internet]. J Moral Theol. 2024;13(2). https://doaj.org/article/66571393023b4fbd980ffdee3e4217bb
- Maranges HM, Fincham FD. Psychological perspectives on divine forgiveness: trait self-control is associated with well-being through seeking divine forgiveness. Front Psychol. 2024;15:1292537. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1292537
- Schuster P, Beutel ME, Hoyer J, Leibing E, Nolting B, Salzer S, et al. The role of shame and guilt in social anxiety disorder. J Affect Disord Rep. 2021;6:100208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadr.2021.100208
- Saraiya T, Lopez-Castro T. Ashamed and afraid: a scoping review of the role of shame in post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). J Clin Med. 2016;5(11):94. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm5110094
- Swan S, Andrews B. The relationship between shame, eating disorders and disclosure in treatment. Br J Clin Psychol. 2003;42(4):367-78. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466503322528919
- Bilevicius E, Single A, Bristow LA, Foot M, Ellery M, Keough MT, et al. Shame mediates the relationship between depression and addictive behaviours. Addict Behav. 2018;82:94-100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2018.02.023
- Velotti P, Garofalo C, Bottazzi F, Caretti V. Faces of shame: implications for self-esteem, emotion regulation, aggression, and well-being. J Psychol. 2017;151(2):171-84. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2016.1248809
- Shaughnessy MJ. Integrative literature review on shame. J Holist Nurs. 2018;36(1):24-34. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894318417741120
- Michl P, Meindl T, Meister F, Born C, Engel RR, Reiser M, et al. Neurobiological underpinnings of shame and guilt: a pilot fMRI study. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci. 2014;9(2):150-7. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nss114
- Lupis SB, Sabik NJ, Wolf JM. Role of shame and body esteem in cortisol stress responses. J Behav Med. 2016;39(2):262-75. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-015-9695-5
- Sapolsky RM. Stress and plasticity in the limbic system. Neurochem Res. 2003;28(11):1735-42. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1026021307833
- Franco F. Intergenerational transmission of trauma. J Health Serv Psychol. 2023;49(3):185-90. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42843-023-00096-7
- Kozlowska K, Walker P, McLean L, Carrive P. Fear and the defense cascade: clinical implications and management. Harv Rev Psychiatry. 2015;23(4):263-87. https://doi.org/10.1097/HRP.0000000000000065
- Uskul AK, Cross SE, Günsoy C. The role of honour in interpersonal, intrapersonal and intergroup processes. Soc Personal Psychol Compass. 2022;17(1):e12719. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12719
- Sweezy M. The teenager’s confession: regulating shame in Internal Family Systems therapy. Am J Psychother. 2011;65(2):179-91. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.2011.65.2.179
- Sedighimornani N, Rimes K, Verplanken B. Factors contributing to the experience of shame and shame management: adverse childhood experiences, peer acceptance, and attachment styles. J Soc Psychol. 2020;160(2):129-45. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2020.1778616
- BibleGateway.com. Genesis 1:27, New International Version [Internet]. Grand Rapids (MI): Bible Gateway; c1995–2025 [cited 2025 Nov 22]. Available from: https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%201%3A27&version=NIV
- BibleGateway.com. 2 Corinthians 5:17, New International Version [Internet]. Grand Rapids (MI): Bible Gateway; c1995–2025 [cited 2025 Nov 22]. Available from: https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20Corinthians%205%3A17&version=NIV
- Mayer CH, Vanderheiden E. Transforming shame in the pandemic: an international study. Front Psychol. 2021;12:641076. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.641076
- Walker R. The shame of poverty. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2014.
- Chase E, Walker R. Shame as a co-constructed emotion: people’s accounts of their lives. Sociol. 2013;47(4):739-54. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038038512453796
- Merleau-Ponty M. Phenomenology of perception [Landes DA, translator]. London: Routledge; 2012.
- Ran MS, Hall BJ, Su TT, Prawira B, Breth-Petersen M, Li XH, et al. Stigma of mental illness and cultural factors in Pacific Rim region: a systematic review. BMC Psychiatry. 2021;21:8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-02991-5
- Samari E, Teh WL, Roystonn K, Devi F, Cetty L, Shahwan S, et al. Perceived mental illness stigma among family and friends of young people with depression and its role in help-seeking: a qualitative inquiry. BMC Psychiatry. 2022;22:107. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-022-03754-0
- Gaiha SM, Salisbury TT, Koschorke M, Raman U, Petticrew M. Stigma associated with mental health problems among young people in India: a systematic review. BMC Psychiatry. 2020;20:252. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-02937-x
- Freeman SE, Calenberg RD. Understanding honor shame dynamics for ministry in Sub Saharan Africa [Internet]. Bibliotheca Sacra. 2018;175(700):425-38. Available from: https://www.galaxie.com/article/bsac175-700-04
- Bierle I, Becker JC, Nakao G, Heine SJ. Shame and anger differentially predict disidentification between collectivistic and individualistic societies. PLoS One. 2023;18(9):e0289918. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0289918
- Shield M. Is shame a global emotion? Hum Stud. 2024;47(3):793-809. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10746-024-09731-8
- Hu JI. Shame, vulnerability, and change. J Am Philos Assoc. 2022;8(2):373-90. https://doi.org/10.1017/apa.2021.21
- Heim E, Henderson C, Kohrt BA, Koschorke M, Milenova M, Thornicroft G. Reducing mental health-related stigma among medical and nursing students in low- and middle-income countries: a systematic review. Epidemiol Psychiatr Sci. 2019;29:e28. https://doi.org/10.1017/S2045796019000167
- Puchalski CM, Vitillo R, Hull SK, Reller N. Improving the spiritual dimension of whole person care: reaching national and international consensus. J Palliat Med. 2014;17(6):642-56. https://doi.org/10.1089/jpm.2014.9427
- Dolezal L, Gibson M. Beyond a trauma-informed approach and towards shame-sensitive practice. Humanit Soc Sci Commun. 2022;9:214. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-022-01227-z
- BibleGateway.com. 2 Corinthians 7:10, New International Version [Internet]. Grand Rapids (MI): Bible Gateway; c1995–2025 [cited 2025 Nov 22]. Available from: https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20Corinthians%207%3A10&version=NIV
- Exline JJ, Rose E. Religious and spiritual struggles. In: Pargament KI, editor. APA handbook of psychology, religion, and spirituality. Vol. 1. Washington (DC): American Psychological Association; 2013. p. 459-75. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036465
- López-Castro T, Saraiya T, Zumberg-Smith K, Dambreville N. Association between shame and posttraumatic stress disorder: a meta-analysis. J Trauma Stress. 2019;32(4):484-95. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22411
DOI: https://doi.org/10.15566/kgaz2x13 | Journal eISSN: 2167-2415
Language: English
Page range: 187 - 194
Submitted on: Sep 23, 2025
Accepted on: Dec 20, 2026
Published on: Apr 17, 2026
Published by: Global Health Institute at William Carey International University
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services
© 2026 Rebecca Bates, published by Global Health Institute at William Carey International University
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
