Special Olympics movement was created so that individuals with intellectual disabilities could benefit from participation in sport adapted to their needs. For the participants of Special Olympic Games, the most significant aspect is to be brave in their efforts even if it is not possible for them to win. Fighting one’s own weaknesses and participation in sports competition are more important. A mission of Special Olympics is to create conditions for individuals with intellectual disabilities to allow them to participate in sports training and sports competitions [1].
Special Olympics is dedicated to individuals with intellectual disabilities. Currently, intellectual disability is defined on the basis of the person’s abilities and the quality of their relations with the surroundings rather than with the use of intelligence quotient criterion [2]. This is also the standpoint presented by the American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD), according to which, intellectual disability is characterised by significant limitations in intellectual functions (i.e. intelligence, which refers to such general mental abilities as reasoning, learning, solving problems) and at the same time in adaptive behaviours (conceptual, social and practical abilities and skills). It was concluded that intellectual disability manifests itself before the age of 18 [3]. Intellectual disability is defined in a similar way in the current version of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition (DSM-5). According to the definition from the Manual, “intellectual disability is a disorder with onset in the developmental period that includes both intellectual and adaptive functioning deficits” [4].
Sport may become a significant field of interest among individuals with intellectual disabilities, just like in the life of any young individual. It happens when doing a selected sport provides a rhythm for everyday functioning of an individual and all the spheres of life are inferior to this activity. Physically active people usually manifest a particular level of identification with a social role of an athlete or with a sport they do, which is responsible for the development of athletic identity. The notion of identity was implemented in social sciences by Erikson. However, he did not formulate the definition of identity but divided it into two areas called levels. The first level is a hypothetical one which results from the activity of ego, i.e. it more clearly refers to an internal structure of an individual. The second level, called experience, is based on achieving the feeling of cohesion and continuity, which results from integrating previous experiences [5]. Building one’s own identity is an important and difficult process. According to Tyszka, everyone wants to be recognised and valued in the society without abandoning their own convictions. It is possible when an individual has a fully shaped identity which also serves as a basis for adequate self-assessment and for the feeling of being important and unique, i.e. being self-aware. Identity is also an attribute of a respected member of a society based on generally accepted values in a given group [6]. According to Kozielecki, identity processes are initiated in a fully conscious manner that leads an individual to self-image. This image may be presented with a verbal message and can be updated in memory at any moment. The theory of Kozielecki indicates that identity is a multidimensional and complex personal judgement which is determined by self-awareness. A key role in developing identity and creating certain uniqueness of an individual is played by the so-called distinctive judgements. They refer to all the areas which distinguish an individual from the group, e.g. nationality [7].
There are two types of identity which may be referred to the aim of this study. The first type is personal (individual) identity understood as a system of knowledge about oneself or about one’s own characteristics which distinguish the person from others (e.g. physical features, preferences, abilities and skills). The other type is social identity perceived as the system of knowledge about oneself which is connected with the feeling of belonging to a certain social group (e.g. religion, sports club membership, political affiliation) [8]. Well-developed social identity helps individuals to adjust to the group that they identify with. This type of identity makes relations with the surroundings easier, increases self-assessment and facilitates orientation in the social world. The process of shaping social identity usually takes place by itself owing to society members who notice personal talents and abilities of an individual. An opportunity to develop athletic identity which is a significant sign of integration of personal and social identity is enhanced due to the participation in training sessions and competitions of Special Olympics. Such a view is presented, inter alia, by Krzywy, who found a correlation between the process of preparing an athlete to the swimming competition of Special Olympics and an increased level of athletic identity [9]. Also, Wiliński et al. claimed that athletic identity is constructed based on various intensity levels of different aspects of an athlete’s role. In this process, a significant role is played by Special Olympics Association, sports clubs which prepare for Special Olympics as well as free time physical activity. Moreover, the aforementioned forms of physical activity within Special Olympics may broaden athletes’ personality by aspects connected with sports competition. Wiliński et al. noted that the group of athletes with moderate intellectual disability from Special Olympics Club in Wrocław identified themselves with the role of an athlete; however, a detailed analysis of the comments to the questions included in the Athletic Identity Measurement Scale (AIMS), which supplemented the quantitative characteristics of all the athletes, revealed certain differences between particular respondents [2].
The above information may serve as a basis for a more thorough analysis of athletic identity of Special Olympics participants. Does physical activity undertaken by individuals with intellectual disabilities only act as a certain element fulfilling their free time or does it play a leading role in the life of every Special Olympics participant? The cognitive aim of this study was to determine the intensity which is measured by the level of agreement with the sports identity characterising the selected group of swimmers participating in Special Olympics. In turn, the practical purpose of the work was to indicate the possibilities of applying a modified research tool with regard to individuals with intellectual disabilities and to spread the knowledge about people with intellectual disabilities.
The research was conducted on the participants of the 8th Lower Silesian Special Olympics Swimming Competition in 2015 which took place at the swimming pool of the University of Physical Education in Wroclaw. An interview was conducted among 37 individuals aged 14 to 23 (M=18.5; SD=6.36) with moderate intellectual disability. Training experience of Special Olympics participants was minimum 2 years long, which was one of the inclusion criteria for the study. Moreover, each respondent communicated verbally, which made it possible to carry out interviews individually. Taking into account the aforementioned inclusion criteria, 37 athletes were randomly selected from the group of 123 individuals. A diagnostic poll was applied as a research method and an interview technique was used. The modified Athletic Identity Measurement Scale (AIMS) according to Brewer, van Raalte and Linder was a research tool utilised in the study. It assesses three dimensions, i.e. social identity (questions 1-2), exclusiveness (questions 3-5) and negative aspects (questions 6-7). Social identity refers to the strength of a respondent’s identification with the role of an athlete, exclusiveness means the level of this identification, while negative factors are defined as negative emotional reactions resulting from giving up training and competition due to an injury or illness. The research with the use of AIMS has been carried out both among able-bodied athletes and individuals with disabilities, but also among persons who do practise any sport. The original AIMS includes 10 items; however, currently its shorter, 7-point version, in which 1 means “I fully disagree” and 7 “I fully agree”, is applied in research. The reliability of AIMS with regard to able-bodied individuals according to Cronbach’s α was 0.81-0.93, while with regard to individuals with disabilities it was 0.87-0.90 [10].
The research tool was modified for the needs of this study. It resulted from the necessity to adapt the tool to intellectual abilities of the respondents. Seven-grade scale was shortened to three types of pictograms, i.e. a smiling face, a sad face and a neutral face which meant “I agree”, “I disagree” and “I am not certain”, respectively.
In the past, AIMS was modified, inter alia, by Wiliński et al., who changed the 7-point Likert scale into pictograms which could be understood by individuals with intellectual disabilities. This pictogram scale included 7 simplified images of a face expressing emotions from sadness, through indifference to happiness (from 1 meaning “I fully disagree” depicted by a sad face to 7 meaning “I fully agree” depicted by a smiling face) [2].
The study on swimmers participating in Special Olympics was conducted with each respondent being examined individually. The task of the respondents was to indicate the pictogram which best reflected their positive or negative attitude to statements connected with participating in sport. Separate questions were analysed with regard to the percentage of particular variants of responses (not certain, yes, no) in the whole group.
In the statistical analysis, the fractions test was used to find statistical significance of differences between the responses “I agree” (YES) and “I do not agree” (NO).
The fractions test regarding identification with the group of professional athletes (statement 1) revealed that the vast majority of the respondents (approximately 78%) declared their identification with this group, contrary to 19% of the study participants who did not consider themselves athletes. In these declarations, statistically significant differences between the responses Yes and No at the level p<0.001 were noted.
Nearly 68% of the respondents wanted to devote themselves to sport in the future (statement 2), while approximately 8% of the study participants did not want to continue their sports career. In this case, statistically significant differences between responses Yes and No at the level p<0.001 were also noted.
The majority of the respondents (nearly 65%) claimed that their friends were also athletes (statement 3). Nearly one in four study participants provided a different response claiming that they did not have any friends among athletes. In this case, statistically significant differences between responses Yes and No at the level p<0.001 were also noted.
Sport was the most important part of life (statement 4) for slightly over half of the study participants, while nearly 30% of them did not consider sport to be such a significant element of their life.
Athletic identity of the participants of Special Olympics
| Stwierdzenia/Statements | Odpowiedzi/Responses | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| Niezdecydowany/Not certain [%] | Tak/Yes [%] | Nie/No [%] | |
| 1. Uważam siebie za sportowca wyczynowego./I consider myself an athlete. | 2,7 | 78,4* | 18,9 |
| 2. Mam wiele celów związanych ze sportem./I have many goals related to sport. | 24,3 | 67,6* | 8,1 |
| 3. Większość moich przyjaciół to sportowcy wyczynowi./Most of my friends are athletes. | 10,8 | 64,9* | 24,3 |
| 4. Sport jest najważniejszym elementem mojego życia./Sport is the most important part of my life. | 5,4 | 54,1* | 29,7 |
| 5. Spędzam więcej czasu myśląc o sporcie niż czymkolwiek innym./I spend more time thinking about sport than anything else. | 19 | 40,5 | 40,5 |
| 6. Czuję się źle, gdy nie odnoszę sukcesów sportowych./I feel bad about myself when I do poorly in sport. | 13,6 | 37,8 | 48,6 |
| 7. Byłbym przygnębiony gdybym był chory lub uległ urazowi i nie mógł uprawiać sportu./I would be very depressed if I were injured and could not compete in sport. | 8,2 | 45,9 | 45,9 |
statistical significance of differences between the responses Yes and No at the level p<0.001 is marked with (*).
No statistically significant differences between responses Yes and No at the level p<0.001 were noted.
In the examined group, nearly 41% of the athletes devoted time to thinking about sport more often than anything else (statement 5) and the same number of the study participants provided an opposite response.
Negative emotions connected with the lack of sports successes (statement 6) accompanied nearly 38% of the respondents. However, over 48% of the study participants did not feel bad when doing poorly in sport.
Nearly 46% of the athletes claimed that they would be depressed if they were injured and could not compete in sport (statement 7) and, on the other hand, the same percentage of the subjects would not feel depressed if they could not participate in a selected sports activity.
The study revealed the level of athletic identity in the selected group of athletes participating in Special Olympics. The focus of this study was on a psycho-social aspect and according to Cedro, it is a sphere where the role of sport is reduced to internal experiences of individuals, their need for competition, expression of personality, relieving mental tensions and hedonistic aspects [11].
While observing a group of athletes with intellectual disabilities, Lesiuk and Martyniuk noted that the examined adolescents were eager to participate in sports classes while sports competitions were unforgettable experiences for them and a way of struggling with their own weaknesses and vices. The notion “sport” should not be associated only with records and medals but it is also aimed at revalidation and sports recreation. While working with pupils and students participating in sports competitions of Special Olympics, the authors of the above observations noted that individuals with intellectual disabilities took joy mainly in an opportunity to participate in Special Olympics. It was a huge experience for them and their families. They could take joy in winning but they also learnt to fail. Lesiuk and Martyniuk quoted one of the participants of Special Olympics: “The best part is that I can swim and compete to win. If I sometimes fail, I know that I have to practise to succeed. I like participating in the Olympics even when I fail” [12]. The analysis of the responses to the AIMS (‘yes’ versus ‘no’) showed that the players were not affected too much by their failures during competitions, and regardless of them, sport was one of the central areas of their personality.
Athletic identity was the subject of research, inter alia, by Tasiemski and Brewer, who examined patients after spinal cord injuries. The aim of their research was to assess whether athletic identity was stronger before or after the injury. The participants confirmed they were more engaged in sport after the injury than before. The obtained results indicated that the role of sport in the process of adapting to life after a spinal cord injury was invaluable. In turn, individuals who engaged in sport after the injury manifested a higher level of athletic identity than patients who did not take up any physical activity. According to Tasiemski, they also adapted better mentally and, therefore, participating in sport was so significant [13].
While comparing the results of Special Olympics participants with the results obtained by Tasiemski and Brewer, it can be noted that the type of disability does not affect the intensity of athletic identity, but it may affect a potential individual level of engagement in sport.
In another study, Tasiemski et al. examined a group of non-sighted tandem cyclists and their sighted pilots. The team of researchers wanted to determine whether “stronger” engagement in sports competition modified the level of sports identity. Blind athletes manifested a lower level of athletic identity than their pilots. The comparison of two types of sports personality (weaker and stronger one) noted in blind tandem cyclists and their sighted pilots revealed that their sports identities may develop on the basis of completely different emotional experiences [14].
Other authors who were working on similar issues include Harada and Siperstein. They concluded that sports achievements are not the most popular motivating factor declared by athletes participating in Special Olympics. It is by far less common than fun and pleasure connected with doing sports and an opportunity to make friends with other athletes [15].
Similar study conducted by Wiliński et al. indicated that the participants of Special Olympics identify themselves with the role of an athlete and on the basis of this, their sports personality is created. They also indicated certain limitations in their research resulting from adapting the research tool which had to be modified to meet the needs of individuals with intellectual disabilities. The analysis of results was based both on quantitative results and on summarised comments to the statements provided by all the respondents. This, according to the authors, referred to the level of athletic identity. Such a research procedure revealed, inter alia, that despite a disagreement between her interests and sports she was doing, one of the female athletes identified herself with the role of an athlete and achieved a very high result in AIMS. The research results obtained by Wiliński et al. leave room for discussion and suggest analysing potential implications for athletes with intellectual disabilities [2].
The results obtained in our research do not differ significantly from the ones presented in the study by Wiliński et al. The examined swimmers also manifested a high level of athletic identity (indicated by a higher percentage of the responses “yes” in the AIMS). Moreover, the tool was modified even more, i.e. the 7-point Likert scale was limited to three variants of responses replaced with pictograms, which served as a basis for successful interviews with the respondents.
The research on athletic identity of swimmers participating in Special Olympics was also carried out by Krzywy, a student from the University of Physical Education in Wroclaw. The author applied the same method, technique and tool (the modified Athletic Identity Measurement Scale according to Brewer et al.) as the ones used in our study. The research was carried out during the 7th Lower Silesian Special Olympics Swimming Competition in 2013 (the competition preceding the one during which our research was conducted). The comparison of results revealed certain discrepancies. For instance, in the research by Krzywy the majority (nearly 68%) of the athletes felt bad when they did poorly, while in our research it was not such a significant element during competitions (it was declared by nearly 38% of the respondents). In 2013, sport was the most significant part of life for virtually all the swimmers; however, in our research it was the most important aspect for slightly more than half of the respondents. As far as the question regarding injuries is concerned, in 2013 all the respondents declared that they would be depressed if they were injured and could not compete in sport. However, in our research nearly 50% of the athletes would not feel depressed because of an injury [9].
The participants of Special Olympics manifest a high level of athletic identity. It is proven by a vital role of sport in the lives of the examined athletes. It is one of the most important parts of life among Special Olympics participants.
For individuals with intellectual disabilities, sport has more dimensions than only competition and winning medals. It is a way of developing not only a spiritual but also emotional sphere, socialising and making friends with other athletes. For athletes with intellectual disabilities, the participation in Special Olympics competition is more important than victory.
The applied modification of the research tool, i.e. the reduction to three possible answers expressed as pictograms, is an interesting proposition in the field of methodology of research adapted to the needs of individuals with intellectual disabilities.
Due to limitations resulting from the lack of division according to gender, the obtained results may be perceived only as initial and approximate findings in the field of athletic identity of individuals with intellectual disabilities.