References
- Ascough P, Bird MI, Wormald P, Snape CE and Apperlay D, 2008. Influence of pyrolysis variables and starting material on charcoal stable isotopic and molecular characteristics. Geochemica et Cosmochimica Acta 72: 6090–6102, 10.1016/j.gca.2008.10.009
- Baertschi P, 1953. Die fraktionierung der naturlichen kohlenstoffisotopen im kohlendioxydstoffwechsel gruner pflanzen Helvetica Chimica Acta 36: 773–781, 10.1002/hlca.19530360403
- Benington F, Melton C and Watson PJ, 1962. Carbon dating prehistoric soot from Salts Cave, Kentucky. American Antiquity 28: 238–241, 10.2307/278384
- Benner R, Fogel ML, Sprague EK and Hodson RE, 1987. Depletion of δ13C in lignin and its implication for stable isotope studies Nature 329: 708–710, 10.1038/329708a0
- Bird MI, 2006. Radiocarbon dating of charcoal. In: Elias SA, ed., The Encyklopedia of Quaternary Science Elsevier, Amsterdam: 2950– 2957.
- Bird MI and Ascough PL, 2012. Isotopes in pyrogenic carbon. A review. Organic Geochemistry 42: 1529–1539, 10.1016/j.orggeochem.2010.09.005
- Bird MI and Grocke D, 1997. Determination of the abundance and carbon-isotope composition of elemental carbon in sediments. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 61: 3413–3423, 10.1016/S0016-7037(97)00157-9
- Bird MI and Cali JA, 1998. A million-year record of fire in sub-Saharan Africa Nature 394: 767–768, 10.1038/29507
- Brodowski S, Amelung W, Haumaier L, Abetz C and Zech W, 2005. Morphological and chemical properties of black carbon in physical soil fractions as revealed by scanning electron microscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. Geoderma 128: 116–129, 10.1016/j.geoderma.2004.12.019
- Bronk-Ramsey C, 2009. Bayesian analysis of radiocarbon dates Radiocarbon 51: 337–360, 10.1017/S0033822200033865
- Cachier H, Bremond MP and Buat-Manard P, 1989. Determination of atmospheric soot carbon with a simple thermal method. Tellus B: Chemical and Physical Meteorology 41B: 379–390, 10.1111/j.1600-0889.1989.tb00316.x
- Chang SJ, Jeong GY and Kim SJ, 2008. The origin of black carbon on speleothems in tourist caves in South Korea: Chemical characterization and source discrimination by radiocarbon measurement. Atmospheric Environment 42: 1790–1800, 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.11.042
- Chenoweth K, Van Duin AC and Goddard WA, 2008. ReaxFF reactive force field for molecular dynamics simulations of hydrocarbon oxidation. The Journal of Physical Chemistry A 112: 1040–1053, 10.1021/jp709896w
- Craig H, 1953. The geochemistry of the stable carbon isotopes. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 3: 53–92, 10.1016/0016-7037(53)90001-5
- Craig H, 1954. Carbon-13 in plants and the relationships between carbon-13 and carbon- 14 variations in nature Journal of Geology 62: 115–149, 10.1086/626141
- Cressler WL, 2001. Evidence of earliest known wildfires Palaios 16: 171–174, 10.1669/0883-1351(2001)016<0171:EOEKW>2.0.CO;2
- Currie LA, Eglinton TJ, Benner BA Jr and Pearson A, 1997. Radiocarbon “dating” of individual chemical compounds in atmospheric aerosol: first results comparing direct isotopic and multivariate statistical apportionment of specific polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research B 123: 475–486, 10.1016/S0168-583X(96)00783-5
- Czimczik CI, Preston CM, Schmidt MWI, Werner RA and Schultze ED, 2002. Effect of charring on mass, organic carbon and stable isotopic composition of wood. Organic Geochemistry 33: 1207–1223.
- Czimczik CI, Schmidt MWI and Schulze ED, 2005. Effect of increasing fire frequency on black carbon and organic matter in Podzols of Siberian Scots pine forests. European Journal of Soil Sciences 56: 417–428, 10.1111/j.1365-2389.2004.00665.x
- Das O, Wang Y and Hsieh YP, 2010. Chemical and carbon isotopic characteristics of ash and smoke derived from burning of C3 and C4 grasses. Organic Geochemistry 41: 263–269, 10.1016/j.orggeochem.2009.11.001
- Dittmar T and Koch BP, 2006. Thermogenic organic matter dissolved in the abyssal ocean. Marine Chemistry 102: 208–217, 10.1016/j.marchem.2006.04.003
- Dittmar T and Paeng J, 2009. A heat-induced molecular signature in marine dissolved organic matter. Nature Geoscience 2: 175–179, 10.1038/NGEO440
- Eckmeier E, Gerlach R, Skjemstad JO, Ehrmann O and Schmidt MWI, 2007. Only small changes in soil organic carbon and charcoal found one year after experimental slash-and-burn in a temperature deciduous forest Biogeosciences Discussions 4: 595–614.
- Fengel D and Munich FRG, 1991. Aging and fossilization of wood and its components. Wood Science and Technology 25: 153–177.
- Ferrio JP, Alonso N, Lopez JB, Araus JL and Voltas J, 2006. Carbon isotope composition of fossil charcoal reveals aridity changes in the NW Mediterranean basin. Global Change Biology 12: 1253– 1266, 10.1111/j.1365-2486.2006.01170.x
- Frisch M, Trucks G, Schlegel H, Scuseria G, Robb M, Cheeseman J, Montgomery J, Vreven J, Kudin K, Burant J, Millam J, Iyengar S, Tomasi J, Barone V, Mannucci B, Cossi M, Scalmani G, Rega N, Petersson G, Nakatsuji H, Hada M, Ehara M, Toyota K, Fukuda F, Hasegawa J, Ishida M, Nakajima T, Honda Y, Kitao O, Nakai H, Klene M, Li X, Knox J, Hratchian H, Cross J, Bakken V, Adamo C, Jramillo J, Gomperts R, Stratmann R, Yazyev O, Austin A, Cammi R, Pomelli C, Ochterski J, Ayala P, Morokuma K, Voth G, Salvador P, Dannenberg J, Zakrzewski V, Dapprich S, Daniels A, Strain M, Frakas O, Malick D, Rabuck A, Raghavachari K, Foresman J, Ortiz J, Cui Q, Baboul A, Clifford S, Cislowski J, Stefanov B, Liu G, Liashenko A, Piskorz P, Komaromi I, Martin R, Fox D, Keith T, Al-Laham M, Peng C, Nanayakkara A, Challacombe M, Gill P, Johnson B, Chen W, Wong M, Gonzalez C and Pople J, 2004. Gaussian-94, Revision, C.3,. Gaussian, Inc., Pittsburgh, PA.
- Goldberg ED, 1985. Black Carbon in the Environment John Wiley, New York: 198.
- Gradziński M, Hercman H, Bella P, Debaene G, and Nowicki T, 2002. Tmavé laminácie v sintrových nátekoch jaskyne Domica ako indikátor akivít pravekých ľudí (Dark coloured laminae within speleothems of the Domica Cave as an indicator of the prehistoric men activity). Slovenský Kras 40: 41–48 (in Slovak).
- Gradziński M, Gorny A, Pazdur A and Pazdur, MF, 2003. Origin of black coloured laminae in speleothems from the Kraków‐Wieluń, Upland, Poland. Boreas 32: 532–542, 10.1080/03009480310003414
- Gradziński M, Hercman H, Nowak M and Bella P, 2007. Age of black coloured laminae within speleothems from Domica Cave and its significance for dating of prehistoric human settlement. Geo-chronometria 28: 39–45, 10.2478/v10003-007-0029-7
- Haberstroh PR, Brandes JA, Gélinas Y, Dickens AF, Wirick S, Cody G, 2006. Chemical composition of the graphitic black carbon fraction in riverine and marine sediments at sub-micron scales using carbon X-ray spectromicroscopy. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 70: 1483–1494, 10.1016/j.gca.2005.12.001
- Hakkou M, Petrissan M, Gerardin P and Zoulalian A, 2006. Investigation of the reason for fungal durability of heat-treated beech wood. Polymer Degradation and Stability 91: 393–397, 10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2005.04.042
- Hall G, Woodborne S and Scholes M, 2008. Stable carbon isotope ratios from archaeological charcoal as palaeoenvironmental indicators. Chemical Geology 247: 384–400, 10.1016/j.chemgeo.2007.11.001
- Hill CA, 1982. Origin of black deposits in caves. National Speleological Society Bulletin 44: 15–19.
- Joeng GY, Kim SJ and Chang SJ, 2003. Black carbon pollution of speleothems by fine urban aerosols in tourist caves. American Mineralogist 88: 1872–1878, 10.2138/am-2003-11-1230
- Jones TP and Chaloner WG, 1991. Fossil charcoal, its recognition and palaoatmospheric significance. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 97: 39–50, 10.1016/0031-0182(91)90180-Y
- Jones TP, Scott AC and Mattey DP, 1993. Investigations of “fusain transition fossils” from the Lower Carbiniferous: comparison with modern partially charred wood. International Journal of Coal Geology 22: 37–59, 10.1016/0166-5162(93)90037-B
- Krull E, Skjemstad J, Graetz D, Grice K, Dunning W, Cook G and Parr J, 2003. 13C depleted charcoal from C4 grasses and the role of occluded gases in phytolith. Organic Geochemistry 34: 1337–1352, 10.1016/S0146-6380(03)00100-1
- Lehmann J, Skjemstad J, Sohi C, Carter J, Berson M, Fallon P, Coleman K, Woodbury P and Krull E, 2008. Australin climate-carbon cycle feedback reduced by soil black carbon. Nature Geosciences 1: 832–835.
- Manino A and Harvey HR, 2004. Black carbon in estuarine and coastal ocean dissolved organic matter Limnology and Oceanography 49: 735–740, 10.4319/lo.2004.49.3.0735
- Masiello CA, 2004. New direction in black carbon organic geochemistry. Marine Chemistry 92: 201–213, 10.1016/j.marchem.2004.06.043
- Masiello CA and Druffe ERM, 1998. Black carbon in deep sea sediments. Science 280: 1911–1913, 10.1126/science.280.5371.1911
- Masiello CA, Druffel ERM and Currie LA, 2002. Radiocarbon measurements of black carbon in aerosols and ocean sediments Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 66: 1025–1036, 10.1016/S0016-7037(01)00831-6
- Nowack B. and Bucheli TD, 2007. Occurrence, behavior and effects of nanoparticles in the environment Environmental Pollution 150, 5–22, 10.1016/j.envpol.2007.06.006
- Ochterski JW, 2000. Thermochemistry in gaussian. Gaussian Inc 1–19.
- Pawlyta M and Hercman H, 2016. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) as a tool for identification of combustion products: application to black layers in speleothems. Annales Societatis Geologorum Poloniae 86: 237–248, 10.14241/asgp.2016.004
- Petránek J and Pouba Z, 1951. Dating of the development of the Domica Cave, based on the study of the dark zones in the travertine formations. Sborník Ústředního Ústavu Geologického 18: 245– 272. (In Czech, with English summary.)
- Plimpton P, 1995. Fast Parallel Algorithms for Short-Range Molecular Dynamics. Journal of Computational Physics 117: 1–19, 10.1006/jcph.1995.1039
- Poole I, Braadbaart F, Boon J.J and van Bergen PF, 2002. Stable carbon isotope changes during artificial charring of propagules. Organic Geochemistry 33: 1675–1681, 10.1016/S0146-6380(02)00173-0
- Pósfai M and Molnár A, 2000. Aerosol particles in the troposphere: A mineralogical introduction. Environmental mineralogy 2: 197–252.
- Preston CM and Schmidt MWI, 2006. Black, pyrogenic carbon: a synthesis of current knowledge and uncertainties with special consideration of boreal regions. Biogeosciences 3: 397–420, 10.5194/bg-3-397-2006
- Qian Y, Engel MH and Macko SA, 1992. Stable isotope fractionation of biomonomers during protokerogen formation Chemical Geology 101: 201–210, 10.1016/0009-2541(92)90002-M
- Reimer PJ, Bard E, Bayliss A, Beck WJ, Blackwell PG, Bronk- Ramsey C, Buck CE, Cheng H, Edwards LR, Friedrich M, Grootes PM, Guilderson TP, Haflidason H, Hajdas I, Hatté C, Heaton TJ, Hoffmann DL, Hogg AG, Hughen KA, Kaiser FK, Kromer B, Manning SW, Niu M, Reimer RW, Richards DA, Scott EM, Southon JR, Staff RA, Turney CSM and van der Plicht J, 2013. IntCal13 and Marine13 radiocarbon age calibration curves 0– 50,000 years cal BP. Radiocarbon 55: 1869–1887, 10.2458/azu_js_rc.55.16947
- Rowell RM and LeVan-Green SL, 2005. Thermal Properties. In: Rowell RN, ed., Handbook of Wood Chemistry and Wood Composites. CRC Press 128–145.
- Schmidt MWI, Skjemstad JO and Jäger C, 2002. Carbon isotope geochemistry and nanomorphology of soil black carbon: black charnozemic soil in central Europe originate from ancient biomass burning. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 16: 1123, 10.1029/2002GB001939
- Shafizadeh F, 1984. The chemistry of pyrolysis and combustion. In: Rowell RM, ed., The chemistry of solid wood. Advances in Chemistry Series 207: 489–529, 10.1021/ba-1984-0207.ch013
- Song J, Huang W and Peng P, 2012. Stability and carbon isotope changes of soot and char materials during thermal oxidation: Implication for quantification and source appointment. Chemical Geology 330–331: 158–164, 10.1016/j.chemgeo.2012.08.003
- Steelman KL, Rowe MW, Boutton TW, Southon JR, Merrell CL and Hill RD, 2002. Stable isotope and radiocarbon analyses of black deposits associated with pictographs at Little Lost River Cave, Idaho. Journal of Archaeological Sciences 29: 1189–1198, 10.1006/jasc.2001.0791
- Turney CSM, Wheeler D and Chivas AR, 2006. Carbon isotope fractionation in wood during carbonization. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 70: 960–964, 10.1016/j.gca.2005.10.031
- Vane CH and Abbott GD, 1999. Proxies for land plant biomass: closed system pyrolysis of some methoxyphenols. Organic Geochemistry 30: 1535–1541, 10.1016/S0146-6380(99)00125-4
- Watson PJ, 1966. Prehistoric miners of Salt Cave, Kentucky. Archaeology 19: 237–243.
- Wickman FE, 1952. Variations in the relative abundance of the carbon isotopes in plants. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 2: 243–254, 10.1016/0016-7037(52)90018-5
- Zhang T, Li X, Qiao X, Zheng M, Guo L, Song W and Lin W, 2016. Initial mechanisms for an overall behavior of lignin pyrolysis through large-scale ReaxFF molecular dynamics simulations. Energy & Fuels 30: 3140–3150, 10.1021/acs.energyfuels.6b00247