Figure 1:
Figure 2:
Confirmed and unconfirmed hypotheses_
| Hypothesis number | Path coefficient | T-value | P-value | Confirmed/not confirmed |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| H1 | 1.555 | 9.301 | 0.0 | Confirmed |
| H2 | 1.073 | 7.359 | 0.0 | Confirmed |
| H3 | −0.001 | 0.018 | 0.985 | Not confirmed |
| H4 | −0.016 | 0.277 | 0.782 | Not confirmed |
| H5 | 0.623 | 7.929 | 0.0 | Confirmed |
| H6 | 0.216 | 2.989 | 0.003 | Confirmed |
Path analysis: Direct effects, indirect effects, and total effects in the model_
| Path | Direct effects | Indirect effects | Total effects |
|---|---|---|---|
| IC -> AT | −0.078 (1.861) | −0.004 (0.266) | −0.082 (1.362) |
| IC -> PEU | −0.016 (0.277) | N/A | −0.016 (0.277) |
| IC -> PU | −0.001 (0.018) | N/A | −0.001 (0.018) |
| PEU -> AT | 0.216 (2.989)** | N/A | 0.216 (2.989)** |
| PU -> AT | 0.623 (7.929)** | N/A | 0.623 (7.929)** |
| SN -> AT | 0.513 (3.079)** | 1.201 (6.316)*** | 1.714 (10.015)*** |
| SN -> PEU | 1.073 (7.359)*** | N/A | 1.073 (7.359)*** |
Reliability and validity indices for the proposed measurement model_
| Model’s constructs | Cronbach’s alpha (standardized) | Cronbach’s alpha (unstandardized) | Composite reliability (rho_c) | Average variance extracted (AVE) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| AT | 0.878 | 0.877 | 0.875 | 0.605 |
| IC | 0.909 | 0.908 | 0.902 | 0.619 |
| PEU | 0.941 | 0.940 | 0.930 | 0.634 |
| PU | 0.972 | 0.971 | 0.957 | 0.648 |
| SN | 1.003 | 1.002 | 0.985 | 0.662 |
Significant, moderately significant and non-significant paths of the model_
| Path category | Path | Coefficient, T-value, P-value | Associated constructs |
|---|---|---|---|
| Significant paths | PU -> AT | 0.623, 7.929, 0.000 | Perceived usefulness (PU) -> attitude (AT) |
| SN -> PU | 1.555, 9.301, 0.000 | Subjective norm (SN) -> perceived usefulness (PU) | |
| SN -> PEU | 1.073, 7.359, 0.000 | Subjective norm (SN) -> perceived ease of use (PEU) | |
| SN -> AT | 0.513, 3.079, 0.002 | Subjective norm (SN) -> attitude (AT) | |
| Moderately significant paths | PEU -> AT | 0.216, 2.989, 0.003 | Perceived ease of use (PEU) -> attitude (AT) |
| Non-significant paths | IC -> AT | −0.078, 1.861, 0.063 | Individualism-collectivism index (IC) -> attitude (AT) |
| IC -> PEU | −0.016, 0.277, 0.782 | Individualism-collectivism index (IC) -> perceived ease of use (PEU) | |
| IC -> PU | −0.001, 0.018, 0.985 | Individualism-collectivism index (IC) -> perceived usefulness (PU) |
j_culture-2025-0087_tab_1001
| Questionnaire items | The construct questionnaire’s items present |
|---|---|
| I use a mobile phone, laptop, PC, or tablet to log into my online classes. | Facilitating conditions adapted from Scherer et al. (2019) |
| Using a webcam in online classes helps me to learn more efficiently. | Perceived usefulness adapted from Davis (1989), Marangunić and Granić (2015), Granić and Marangunić (2019), and Alfadda and Mahdi (2021). |
| Overall, I believe that Webcams are easy to use. | Perceived ease of use adapted from Davis (1989), Marangunić and Granić (2015), Granić and Marangunić (2019), and Alfadda and Mahdi (2021). |
| I believe that Webcam use helps me cooperate with classmates. | Attitude adapted from Davis (1989), Zhang et al. (2008), Marangunić and Granić (2015), Granić and Marangunić (2019), and Alfadda and Mahdi (2021). |
| People whose opinions I value (family and close friends) think using a webcam during online classes is essential. | Subjective norm adapted from Ajzen and Fishbein (1980), Scherer et al. (2019), and Huang et al. (2019). |
| University regulations should enforce the use of webcams during online classes. | Individualism-collectivism index adapted from Hofstede (2011). |
R2 values for exogenous variables_
| Endogenous variables | Exogenous variables | R2 values |
|---|---|---|
| Attitude (AT) | Influenced by PU, PEU, SN, and IC | 0.537 |
| Perceived usefulness (PU) | Influenced by SN and IC | 0.966 |
| Perceived ease of use (PEU) | Influenced by SN and IC | 0.329 |