Fig. 1
Features determining a person’s well-being. Own work on the basis of: Helliwell, John, Richard Layard, and Jeffrey Sachs. ‘World happiness report’ (2012).
Fig. 2
Dimensions of social capital. Own work on the basis of Kaasa, Anneli and Eve Parts. ‘Individual-level determinants of social capital in Europe: Differences between country groups.’ Acta sociologica 51.2 (2008).
Tab. 1
The interdependence between de jure and de facto rights protection
| Lack of de jure rights protection | De jure rights protection exists | |
|---|---|---|
| Lack of de facto rights protection | I | II |
| De facto rights protection exists | III | IV |
Tab. 2
Mean values of the declared level of life-satisfaction by residents of post-socialist and non-post-socialist countries
| Number of observations | Mean | χ2statistics | p-value | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Post-socialist countries | 51642 | 5.68 | 11908 | 0,0001 |
| Non-post-socialist countries | 65393 | 7.17 |
Tab. 3
‘How much respect is there for individual human rights nowadays in this country?’ Comparison of the answers of respondents from post-socialist and non-post-socialist countries (as a percentage of total answers). Own work on the basis of WVS (2014).
| Post-socialist countries | Non-post-socialist countries | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1994–1998 | 1999–2004 | 2005–2009 | 2010–2014 | 1994–1998 | 1999–2004 | 2005–2009 | 2010–2014 | |
| There is a lot of respect for individual human rights | 0.02 | 0.05 | 0.02 | 0.07 | 0.01 | 0.11 | 0.16 | 0.14 |
| There is some respect | 0.15 | 0.26 | 0.26 | 0.39 | 0.06 | 0.47 | 0.49 | 0.55 |
| There is not much respect | 0.26 | 0.43 | 0.43 | 0.34 | 0.06 | 0.33 | 0.19 | 0.26 |
| There is no respect at all | 0.14 | 0.26 | 0.12 | 0.10 | 0.00 | 0.07 | 0.02 | 0.03 |
| Missing | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
| Not asked in survey | 0.41 | 0.00 | 0.14 | 0.08 | 0.86 | 0.00 | 0.13 | 0.00 |
| No answer | 0.02 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.00 |
| Don’t know | 0.02 | 0.05 | 0.02 | 0.07 | 0.01 | 0.11 | 0.16 | 0.14 |
Tab. 4
Countries included in the analyses
| Post-socialist countries | Developed non-post-socialist countries | |
|---|---|---|
| 1994–1998 | Albania, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Bulgaria, Belarus, Czech Rep., Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Romania, Russia, Slovakia, Ukraine, Macedonia, Bosnia, Serbia, Montenegro | Australia, Finland, Germany, New Zealand, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United States |
| 1999–2004 | Albania, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Macedonia | Canada, Japan, South Korea, Spain, United States |
| 2005–2009 | Bulgaria, Georgia, Hungary, Moldova, Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovenia, Ukraine, Serbia and Montenegro | Australia, Canada, Cyprus, Finland, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, South Korea, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Great Britain, United States |
| 2010–2014 | Azerbaijan, Armenia, Belarus, Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovenia, Ukraine, Uzbekistan | Australia, Cyprus, Germany, Japan, South Korea, Netherlands, New Zealand, Spain, Sweden, United States |
Tab. 5
The results of Kruskal-Wallis H test
| Mean value of SWB of respondents living in a country where freedom is included in the constitution | Mean value of SWB of respondents living in a country where freedom is not included in the constitution | χ2statistics | p-value | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Freedom of assembly | 6.32 | 6.77 | 158.758 | 0.0001 |
| Freedom of religion | 6.47 | 6.45 | 2.812 | 0.0935 |
| Freedom of expression | 6.29 | 6.79 | 158.758 | 0.0001 |
| Freedom of movement | 6.15 | 6.92 | 158.758 | 0.0001 |
Tab. 6
Corresponding measures of de jure and de facto rights’ protection
| De jure right | De facto right |
|---|---|
| Freedom of assembly: 1 - constitution provides the freedom of assembly 0 - constitution does not provide the freedom of assembly | Civil society participation index: - the extent to which major civil society organisations are routinely consulted by policymaker, how large is the involvement of people in CSOs; the extent to which women are prevented from participating; and the extent to which legislative candidate nomination within party organization is highly decentralized or made through party primaries |
| Freedom of religion: 1 - constitution provides the freedom of religion 0 - constitution does not provide the freedom of religion | Freedom of religion index: - indicator specifying the extent to which individuals and groups have the right to choose a religion, change their religion and practice that religion in private or in public as well as to proselytize peacefully without being subject to restrictions by public authorities |
| Freedom of expression: 1 - constitution provides the freedom of expression or speech 0 - constitution does not provide the freedom of expression or speech | Freedom of expression index: - indicator specifying the extent to which the government respects the freedom of press and media, the freedom of ordinary people to discuss political matters at home and in the public sphere, as well as the freedom of academic and cultural expression |
| Freedom from forced labour: 1 - constitution prohibits slavery, servitude or forced labour 0 - constitution does not prohibit slavery, servitude or forced labour | Freedom from forced labour index: - the extent to which adult citizens are free from servitude and other kinds of forced labour |
| Freedom of movement: 1 - constitution provides the freedom of movement 0 - constitution does not provide the freedom of movement | Freedom of movement : - the extent to which citizens are able to travel freely to and from the country and to emigrate without being subject to restrictions by public authorities |
Tab. 7
Description and sources of variables
| Variable | Definition | Values | Source |
|---|---|---|---|
| life_satisfaction | respondent’s life satisfaction (‘All things considered, how satisfied are you with your life as a whole these days?’) | from 1 (satisfied) to 10 (dissatisfied) | WVS (2015) |
| female | respondent’s gender | 0 – male, 1 – female | WVS (2015) |
| age | respondent’s age | WVS (2015) | |
| age2 | respondent’s age squared | WVS (2015) | |
| income | monthly household income | WVS (2015) | |
| income2 | monthly household income squared | WVS (2015) | |
| employment | respondent’s employment status | 1 – self-employed, full-time employed, part-time employed, student; 0 - otherwise | WVS (2015) |
| married | respondent’s marital status | 1 – married or living together with someone as married, 0 – otherwise | WVS (2015) |
| divorced | respondent’s marital status | 1– divorced, 0 – otherwise | WVS (2015) |
| widowed | respondent’s marital status | 1– widowed, 0 – otherwise | WVS (2015) |
| single | respondent’s marital status | 1 – single, 0 – otherwise | WVS (2015) |
| health | respondent’s subjective assessment of the state of health | binary variables for the following categories of the state of health: very good, good, fair, poor, very poor | WVS (2015) |
| education | respondent’s highest educational level attained | binary variables for the following categories of the level of education: tertiary education, secondary education, basic education | WVS (2015) |
| religiosity | respondent’s religiosity | 1 – a religious person, 0 – otherwise | WVS (2015) |
| lngdppc | GDP per capita in logarithm | VDem (2016) | |
| inflation | inflation | VDem (2016) | |
| GDP growth | GDP growth | VDem (2016) | |
| unemployment | unemployment (% of labour force) | World Bank (2018) | |
| government ideology | ideology of the chief’s executive party | binary variables for the following categories: leftist, right, centre | Database of Political Institutions (2012) |
| democracy | the extent to which an institutionalised democracy is present in a country | scale (1;2) | VDem (2016) |
| regulatory quality | an index including measures of the incidence of market unfriendly policies such as price controls or inadequate bank supervision, as well as perceptions of the burdens imposed by excessive regulation in areas such as foreign trade and business development | scale (-2; 2) | VDem (2016) |
| government effectiveness | the index envisaging the quality of public service provision, the quality of the bureaucracy, the competence of civil servants, the independence of the civil service from political pressures, and the credibility of the government’s commitment to policies | scale (-2; 2) | VDem (2016) |
| expression_df | the extent to which government respects press & media scale freedom, the freedom of ordered people to discuss political matters at home and in the public sphere, as well as the freedom of academic and cultural expression | (0;1) | VDem (2016) |
| civil society_df | The extent to which major civil society organisations scale are routinely consulted by policymaker; how large is the involvement of people in CSOs; the extent to which women are prevented from participating; and the extent to which legislative candidate nomination within party organization is highly decentralized or made through party primaries | (0;1) | VDem (2016) |
| religion_df | the extent to which citizens enjoy freedom of religion scale | (-3; 3) | VDem (2016) |
| move_df | the extent to which citizens are able to travel freely to and scale from the country and to emigrate without being subject to restrictions by public authorities | (-1; 3) | VDem (2016) |
Tab. 8
The influence of de facto empowerment rights on the size of the happiness gap (ordered probit model)
| (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| transition | -0.300** (0.04) | -0.290** (0.04) | -0.273** (0.04) | -0.164** (0.04) | -0.236** (0.04) | 0.169** (0.05) |
| civil society_df | 1.320** | 1.346** | ||||
| (0.11) | (0.15) | |||||
| religion_df | -0.134** | 0.291** | ||||
| (0.02) | (0.03) | |||||
| expression_df | -2.638** | -6.500** | ||||
| (0.17) | (0.30) | |||||
| move_df | 0.326** | 0.327** | ||||
| (0.02) | (0.04) | |||||
| Wave 4 | 0.279** | 0.221** | 0.382** | 0.338** | 0.316** | 0.213** |
| (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | |
| Wave 5 | 0.245** | 0.217** | 0.349** | 0.290** | 0.317** | 0.201** |
| (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | |
| Wave 6 | ||||||
| age | -0.042** | -0.042** | -0.042** | -0.042** | -0.040** | -0.039** |
| (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | |
| age2 | 0.000** | 0.000** | 0.000** | 0.000** | 0.000** | 0.000** |
| (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | |
| female | 0.024 | 0.026 | 0.022 | 0.021 | 0.027* | 0.026* |
| (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | |
| divorced | -0.289** | -0.294** | -0.298** | -0.314** | -0.273** | -0.318** |
| (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | |
| single | -0.198** | -0.194** | -0.184** | -0.185** | -0.241** | -0.243** |
| (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | |
| widowed | -0.225** | -0.223** | -0.230** | -0.235** | -0.221** | -0.233** |
| (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | |
| children | 0.052** | 0.070** | 0.075** | 0.079** | -0.020 | -0.001 |
| (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | |
| good state of health | -0.392** | -0.384** | -0.394** | -0.389** | -0.401** | -0.383** |
| (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | |
| fair state of health | -0.769** | -0.756** | -0.766** | -0.761** | -0.778** | -0.751** |
| (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | |
| poor state of health | -1.231** | -1.216** | -1.232** | -1.219** | -1.237** | -1.190** |
| (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | |
| very poor state of health | -1.527** | -1.510** | -1.525** | -1.513** | -1.526** | -1.477** |
| (0.09) | (0.09) | (0.09) | (0.09) | (0.09) | (0.09) | |
| religiosity | 0.159** | 0.150** | 0.153** | 0.137** | 0.172** | 0.119** |
| (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | |
| tertiary education | 0.171** | 0.178** | 0.157** | 0.116** | 0.185** | 0.087** |
| (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | |
| secondary education | 0.107** | 0.117** | 0.096** | 0.051** | 0.148** | 0.059** |
| (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | |
| income | 0.159** | 0.148** | 0.154** | 0.163** | 0.159** | 0.167** |
| (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | |
| income2 | -0.007** | -0.006** | -0.007** | -0.008** | -0.007** | -0.008** |
| (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | |
| lngdppc | 0.169** | 0.104** | 0.135** | 0.507** | 0.086* | 0.903** |
| (0.04) | (0.04) | (0.04) | (0.04) | (0.04) | (0.06) | |
| Inflation | -0.007** | -0.008** | -0.003** | 0.004** | -0.007** | 0.009** |
| (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | |
| unemployment | 0.002 | -0.005** | 0.007** | 0.022** | 0.005** | 0.038** |
| (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | |
| GDP growth | 0.014** | 0.019** | 0.019** | 0.013** | 0.015** | 0.007* |
| (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | |
| leftist ideology of government | -0.335** | -0.303** | -0.394** | -0.252** | -0.252** | 0.134** |
| (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.04) | |
| right ideology of government | -0.490** | -0.455** | -0.605** | -0.483** | -0.483** | -0.191** |
| (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.04) | |
| democracy | 0.047* | 0.095** | 0.180** | 0.086** | 0.214** | 0.065 |
| (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.03) | (0.02) | (0.03) | (0.05) | |
| regulatory quality | 0.231** | -0.042 | 0.318** | 0.519** | 0.133** | 0.335** |
| (0.03) | (0.04) | (0.04) | (0.04) | (0.03) | (0.05) | |
| number of observations | 29397 | |||||
[i] Notes: Results significant at 1% level are marked with**. Results significant at 5% level are marked with*. The sample is drawn from inter alia WVS database (2015) and VDem database (2016) and consists of 29,397 respondent level observations from 27 post-socialist and 17 non post-socialist countries. Post-socialist countries: Albania, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Bulgaria, Belarus, Czech Rep., Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Romania, Slovakia, Ukraine, Macedonia, Bosnia, Serbia, Montenegro, Kyrgyzstan, Georgia, Hungary, Poland, Russia, Slovenia, Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan. Non post-socialist countries: Australia, Finland, Germany, New Zealand, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United States, Canada, Japan, South Korea, Cyprus, France, Italy, Netherlands, Great Britain.
Tab. 9
The influence of de jure and de facto empowerment rights on the size of the happiness gap (ordered probit model)
| (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| transition | -0.306** | -0.302** | -0.149** | -0.321** |
| (0.04) | (0.04) | (0.04) | (0.04) | |
| civil society_df | 1.494** | |||
| (0.13) | ||||
| assembly_di | 0.074** | |||
| (0.03) | ||||
| religion_df | -0.122** | |||
| (0.02) | ||||
| religion_di | 0.445** | |||
| (0.03) | ||||
| expression_df | -2.714** | |||
| (0.17) | ||||
| expression_di | -0.109** | |||
| (0.03) | ||||
| move_df | 0.321** | |||
| (0.02) | ||||
| move_di | -0.118** | |||
| (0.02) | ||||
| Wave 4 | 0.182** | 0.217** | 0.327** | 0.342** |
| (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | |
| Wave 5 | 0.193** | 0.289** | 0.257** | 0.318** |
| (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | |
| Wave 6 | ||||
| age | -0.042** | -0.042** | -0.041** | -0.040** |
| (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | |
| age2 | 0.000** | 0.000** | 0.000** | 0.000** |
| (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | |
| female | 0.026 | 0.018 | 0.022 | 0.029* |
| (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | |
| divorced | -0.294** | -0.301** | -0.314** | -0.277** |
| (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | |
| single | -0.191** | -0.208** | -0.190** | -0.234** |
| (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | |
| widowed | -0.223** | -0.226** | -0.235** | -0.222** |
| (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | |
| children | 0.080** | 0.058** | 0.066** | -0.010 |
| (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | |
| good state of health | -0.386** | -0.393** | -0.387** | -0.400** |
| (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | |
| fair state of health | -0.759** | -0.760** | -0.759** | -0.776** |
| (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | |
| poor state of health | -1.217** | -1.209** | -1.216** | -1.235** |
| (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | |
| very poor state of health | -1.510** | -1.498** | -1.511** | -1.524** |
| (0.09) | (0.09) | (0.09) | (0.09) | |
| religiosity | 0.150** | 0.158** | 0.135** | 0.164** |
| (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | |
| tertiary education | 0.187** | 0.165** | 0.104** | 0.179** |
| (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | |
| secondary education | 0.120** | 0.107** | 0.049* | 0.146** |
| (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | |
| income | 0.144** | 0.145** | 0.168** | 0.159** |
| (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | |
| income2 | -0.006** | -0.006** | -0.008** | -0.007** |
| (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | |
| lngdppc | 0.099** | 0.075* | 0.538** | 0.093* |
| (0.04) | (0.04) | (0.04) | (0.04) | |
| Inflation | -0.009** | -0.009** | 0.003** | -0.007** |
| (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | |
| unemployment | -0.006** | -0.010** | 0.022** | 0.004** |
| (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | |
| GDP growth | 0.021** | 0.012** | 0.013** | 0.014** |
| (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | |
| leftist ideology of government | -0.298** | -0.259** | -0.254** | -0.262** |
| (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | |
| right ideology of government | -0.448** | -0.471** | -0.502** | -0.496** |
| (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | |
| democracy | 0.117** | 0.034 | 0.057* | 0.144** |
| (0.02) | (0.03) | (0.02) | (0.03) | |
| regulatory quality | -0.088* | 0.190** | 0.507** | 0.127** |
| (0.04) | (0.04) | (0.04) | (0.03) | |
| number of observations | 29397 |
[i] Notes: Results significant at 1% level are marked with**. Results significant at 5% level are marked with*. The sample is drawn from inter alia WVS database (2015) and VDem database (2016) and consists of 29,397 respondent level observations from 27 post-socialist and 17 non post-socialist countries. Post-socialist countries: Albania, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Bulgaria, Belarus, Czech Rep., Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Romania, Slovakia, Ukraine, Macedonia, Bosnia, Serbia, Montenegro, Kyrgyzstan, Georgia, Hungary, Poland, Russia, Slovenia, Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan. Non post-socialist countries: Australia, Finland, Germany, New Zealand, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United States, Canada, Japan, South Korea, Cyprus, France, Italy, Netherlands, Great Britain.
Tab. 10
The influence of empowerment rights gap on the level of life satisfaction of inhabitants of post-socialist and non-post-socialist countries (ordered probit model)
| Post-socialist | Non-post- socialist | Post-socialist | Non-post- socialist | Post-socialist | Non-post- socialist | Post-socialist | Non-post-socialist | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| civil society_gap | -0.120** | -0.224** | ||||||
| (0.01) | (0.01) | |||||||
| religion_gap | -0.075** | -0.221** | ||||||
| (0.01) | (0.01) | |||||||
| expression_gap | -0.019* | -0.191** | ||||||
| (0.01) | (0.01) | |||||||
| move_gap | -0.012* | -0.160** | ||||||
| (0.01) | (0.01) | |||||||
| age | -0.033** | -0.030** | -0.032** | -0.031** | -0.033** | -0.031** | -0.033** | -0.030** |
| (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | |
| age2 | 0.000** | 0.000** | 0.000** | 0.000** | 0.000** | 0.000** | 0.000** | 0.000** |
| (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | |
| female | 0.028** | 0.073** | 0.027** | 0.073** | 0.028** | 0.072** | 0.028** | 0.073** |
| (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | |
| divorced | -0.303** | -0.470** | -0.303** | -0.466** | -0.302** | -0.465** | -0.303** | -0.468** |
| (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | |
| single | -0.085** | -0.378** | -0.080** | -0.382** | -0.081** | -0.385** | -0.082** | -0.383** |
| (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | |
| widowed | -0.306** | -0.371** | -0.310** | -0.365** | -0.308** | -0.366** | -0.308** | -0.369** |
| (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | |
| children | -0.005 | -0.005 | -0.007 | -0.004 | -0.006 | -0.003 | -0.006 | -0.001 |
| (0.02) | (0.01) | (0.02) | (0.01) | (0.02) | (0.01) | (0.02) | (0.01) | |
| number of observations | 49472 | 41585 | 49472 | 41585 | 49472 | 41585 | 49472 | 41585 |
[i] Notes: Results significant at 1% level are marked with**. Results significant at 5% level are marked with*. The sample is drawn from inter alia WVS database (2015) and VDem database (2016) and consists of 29,397 respondent level observations from 27 post-socialist and 17 non post-socialist countries. Regressions are done separately for each group of countries. Post-socialist countries: Albania, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Bulgaria, Belarus, Czech Rep., Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Romania, Slovakia, Ukraine, Macedonia, Bosnia, Serbia, Montenegro, Kyrgyzstan, Georgia, Hungary, Poland, Russia, Slovenia, Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan. Non post-socialist countries: Australia, Finland, Germany, New Zealand, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United States, Canada, Japan, South Korea, Cyprus, France, Italy, Netherlands, Great Britain.
Tab. 11
The influence of empowerment rights gap on the level of happiness gap between post-socialist and non-post-socialist countries (ordered probit model)
| (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| transition | -0.795** | -0.728** | -0.785** | -0.758** | -0.748** |
| (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | |
| civil society_gap | -0.156** | ||||
| (0.01) | |||||
| religion_gap | -0.031** | ||||
| (0.01) | |||||
| expression_gap | -0.083** | ||||
| (0.01) | |||||
| move_gap | -0.043** | ||||
| (0.00) | |||||
| age | -0.037** | -0.037** | -0.037** | -0.037** | -0.037** |
| (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | |
| age2 | 0.000** | 0.000** | 0.000** | 0.000** | 0.000** |
| (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | |
| female | 0.043** | 0.045** | 0.044** | 0.044** | 0.044** |
| (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | |
| divorced | -0.342** | -0.364** | -0.359** | -0.361** | -0.361** |
| (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | |
| single | -0.233** | -0.226** | -0.224** | -0.226** | -0.227** |
| (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | |
| widowed | -0.364** | -0.365** | -0.365** | -0.364** | -0.364** |
| (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | |
| children | -0.013 | -0.006 | -0.005 | -0.005 | -0.004 |
| (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | |
| number of observations | 91057 |
[i] Notes: Results significant at 1% level are marked with**. Results significant at 5% level are marked with*. The sample is drawn from inter alia WVS database (2015) and VDem database (2016) and consists of 29,397 respondent level observations from 27 post-socialist and 17 non post-socialist countries. Post-socialist countries: Albania, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Bulgaria, Belarus, Czech Rep., Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Romania, Slovakia, Ukraine, Macedonia, Bosnia, Serbia, Montenegro, Kyrgyzstan, Georgia, Hungary, Poland, Russia, Slovenia, Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan. Non post-socialist countries: Australia, Finland, Germany, New Zealand, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United States, Canada, Japan, South Korea, Cyprus, France, Italy, Netherlands, Great Britain.
Tab. 12
The influence of empowerment rights’ gap on the level of happiness gap between post-socialist and non-post-socialist countries (ordered probit model) – with additional individual, macroeconomic and institutional characteristics added
| (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | (9) | (10) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| transition | -0.309** (0.02) | -0.331** (0.02) | -0.324** (0.02) | -0.336** (0.02) | -0.343** (0.02) | -0.012* (0.04) | -0.004* (0.04) | -0.002* (0.04) | -0.008* (0.04) | -0.063* (0.04) |
| civil society_gap | -0.102** (0.01) | 0.035 (0.02) | ||||||||
| religion_gap | -0.069** (0.01) | -0.408** (0.02) | ||||||||
| expression_gap | -0.088** (0.01) | 0.027 (0.02) | ||||||||
| move_gap | -0.123** (0.01) | -0.158** (0.02) | ||||||||
| age | -0.036** (0.00) | -0.036** (0.00) | -0.037** (0.00) | -0.036** (0.00) | -0.036** (0.00) | -0.033** (0.00) | -0.033** (0.00) | -0.032** (0.00) | -0.033** (0.00) | -0.032** (0.00) |
| age2 | 0.000** (0.00) | 0.000** (0.00) | 0.000** (0.00) | 0.000** (0.00) | 0.000** (0.00) | 0.000** (0.00) | 0.000** (0.00) | 0.000** (0.00) | 0.000** (0.00) | 0.000** (0.00) |
| female | 0.056** (0.01) | 0.057** (0.01) | 0.057** (0.01) | 0.056** (0.01) | 0.057** (0.01) | 0.046** (0.01) | 0.046** (0.01) | 0.040** (0.01) | 0.046** (0.01) | 0.050** (0.01) |
| divorced | -0.280** (0.02) | -0.284** (0.02) | -0.282** (0.02) | -0.282** (0.02) | -0.283** (0.02) | -0.294** (0.03) | -0.294** (0.03) | -0.304** (0.03) | -0.294** (0.03) | -0.290** (0.03) |
| single | -0.164** (0.02) | -0.166** (0.02) | -0.165** (0.02) | -0.166** (0.02) | -0.169** (0.02) | -0.180** (0.02) | -0.180** (0.02) | -0.196** (0.02) | -0.179** (0.02) | -0.190** (0.02) |
| widowed | -0.225** (0.02) | -0.225** (0.02) | -0.224** (0.02) | -0.224** (0.02) | -0.224** (0.02) | -0.186** (0.03) | -0.186** (0.03) | -0.188** (0.03) | -0.186** (0.03) | -0.185** (0.03) |
| children | 0.017 (0.01) | 0.011 (0.01) | 0.014 (0.01) | 0.012 (0.01) | 0.008 (0.01) | 0.040* (0.02) | 0.042* (0.02) | 0.034 (0.02) | 0.043* (0.02) | 0.019 (0.02) |
| good state of health | -0.405** (0.01) | -0.398** (0.01) | -0.402** (0.01) | -0.401** (0.01) | -0.399** (0.01) | -0.383** (0.02) | -0.384** (0.02) | -0.381** (0.02) | -0.384** (0.02) | -0.383** (0.02) |
| fair state of health | -0.793** (0.01) | -0.784** (0.01) | -0.790** (0.01) | -0.788** (0.01) | -0.779** (0.01) | -0.766** (0.02) | -0.768** (0.02) | -0.757** (0.02) | -0.767** (0.02) | -0.760** (0.02) |
| poor state of health | -1.259** (0.02) | -1.250** (0.02) | -1.258** (0.02) | -1.253** (0.02) | -1.245** (0.02) | -1.229** (0.03) | -1.232** (0.03) | -1.209** (0.03) | -1.231** (0.03) | -1.224** (0.03) |
| very poor state of health | -1.658** (0.05) | -1.654** (0.05) | -1.655** (0.05) | -1.655** (0.05) | -1.639** (0.05) | -1.563** (0.09) | -1.565** (0.09) | -1.541** (0.09) | -1.566** (0.09) | -1.560** (0.09) |
| religiosity | 0.168** (0.01) | 0.172** (0.01) | 0.172** (0.01) | 0.173** (0.01) | 0.170** (0.01) | 0.169** (0.01) | 0.169** (0.01) | 0.166** (0.01) | 0.169** (0.01) | 0.168** (0.01) |
| tertiary education | 0.100** | 0.090** | 0.098** | 0.093** | 0.091** | 0.084** | 0.086** | 0.076** | 0.085** | 0.087** |
| (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | |
| secondary education | 0.063** | 0.058** | 0.061** | 0.059** | 0.065** | 0.051** | 0.050** | 0.048* | 0.050** | 0.072** |
| (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | |
| income | 0.111** | 0.117** | 0.113** | 0.117** | 0.115** | 0.129** | 0.129** | 0.120** | 0.128** | 0.129** |
| (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | |
| income2 | -0.005** | -0.005** | -0.005** | -0.005** | -0.005** | -0.006** | -0.006** | -0.005** | -0.006** | -0.006** |
| (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | |
| lngdppc | 0.333** | 0.289** | 0.321** | 0.295** | 0.235** | 0.196** | 0.197** | 0.130** | 0.198** | 0.175** |
| (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | |
| Inflation | -0.000** | -0.000** | -0.000** | -0.000** | -0.000** | -0.011** | -0.010** | -0.013** | -0.010** | -0.012** |
| (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | |
| unemployment | -0.005** | -0.005** | -0.005** | -0.005** | -0.007** | -0.012** | -0.012** | -0.024** | -0.012** | -0.012** |
| (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | |
| GDP growth | 0.011** | 0.014** | 0.013** | 0.014** | 0.016** | 0.004 | 0.004 | -0.004 | 0.004 | 0.003 |
| (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | |
| leftist ideology of government | -0.339** (0.03) | -0.332** (0.03) | -0.238** (0.03) | -0.336** (0.03) | -0.334** (0.03) | |||||
| right ideology of government | -0.359** (0.04) | -0.351** (0.04) | -0.296** (0.04) | -0.352** (0.04) | -0.398** (0.04) | |||||
| democracy | -0.066** (0.02) | -0.057** (0.02) | -0.104** (0.02) | -0.061** (0.02) | -0.088** (0.02) | |||||
| regulatory quality | -0.084 (0.04) | -0.090* (0.04) | -0.145** (0.04) | -0.083 (0.04) | -0.123** (0.04) | |||||
| government effectiveness | 0.221** (0.03) | 0.238** (0.04) | 0.263** (0.03) | 0.225** (0.04) | 0.171** (0.04) | |||||
| with time effects | ||||||||||
| number of observations | 25095 |
[i] Notes: Results significant at 1% level are marked with**. Results significant at 5% level are marked with*. The sample is drawn from inter alia WVS database (2015) and VDem database (2016) and consists of 29,397 respondent level observations from 27 post-socialist and 17 non post-socialist countries. Post-socialist countries: Albania, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Bulgaria, Belarus, Czech Rep., Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Romania, Slovakia, Ukraine, Macedonia, Bosnia, Serbia, Montenegro, Kyrgyzstan, Georgia, Hungary, Poland, Russia, Slovenia, Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan. Non post-socialist countries: Australia, Finland, Germany, New Zealand, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United States, Canada, Japan, South Korea, Cyprus, France, Italy, Netherlands, Great Britain.
Tab. 13
The influence of empowerment rights gap on the level of happiness gap between post-socialist and non-post-socialist countries (ordered probit model) - final result
| (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| transition | 0.105 (0.04) | -0.110 (0.05) | 0.041 (0.04) | -1.947** (0.11) |
| civil society_gap | -0.063* (0.02) | |||
| civil society_gap#transition | -1.371** (0.13) | |||
| religion_gap | 0.042 (0.05) | |||
| religion_gap#transition | 0.728** (0.06) | |||
| expression_gap | 0.038 (0.03) | |||
| expression_gap#transition | 2.001** (0.16) | |||
| move_gap | -0.011 (0.02) | |||
| move_gap#transition | -1.030** (0.05) | |||
| age | -0.033** (0.00) | -0.032** (0.00) | -0.033** (0.00) | -0.031** (0.00) |
| age2 | 0.000** (0.00) | 0.000** (0.00) | 0.000** (0.00) | 0.000** (0.00) |
| female | 0.046** (0.01) | 0.038** (0.01) | 0.043** (0.01) | 0.046** (0.01) |
| divorced | -0.289** (0.03) | -0.315** (0.03) | -0.319** (0.03) | -0.291** (0.03) |
| single | -0.204** (0.02) | -0.208** (0.02) | -0.164** (0.02) | -0.229** (0.02) |
| widowed | -0.180** (0.03) | -0.186** (0.03) | -0.195** (0.03) | -0.180** (0.03) |
| children | 0.027 (0.02) | 0.025 (0.02) | 0.090** (0.02) | -0.015 (0.02) |
| good state of health | -0.383** (0.02) | -0.371** (0.02) | -0.384** (0.02) | -0.391** (0.02) |
| fair state of health | -0.763** (0.02) | -0.737** (0.02) | -0.755** (0.02) | -0.774** (0.02) |
| poor state of health | -1.220** (0.03) | -1.176** (0.03) | -1.218** (0.03) | -1.226** (0.03) |
| very poor state of health | -1.512** | -1.462** | -1.512** | -1.502** |
| (0.09) | (0.09) | (0.09) | (0.09) | |
| religiosity | 0.169** | 0.164** | 0.137** | 0.175** |
| (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | |
| tertiary education | 0.109** | 0.055* | 0.053* | 0.083** |
| (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | |
| secondary education | 0.073** | 0.038* | 0.014 | 0.071** |
| (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | |
| income | 0.117** | 0.118** | 0.117** | 0.119** |
| (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | |
| income2 | -0.005** | -0.005** | -0.005** | -0.005** |
| (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | |
| lngdppc | -0.049 | -0.156** | 0.433** | -0.419** |
| (0.04) | (0.04) | (0.04) | (0.04) | |
| Inflation | -0.008** | -0.010** | 0.000 | -0.012** |
| (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | |
| unemployment | -0.013** | -0.028** | 0.008** | 0.002 |
| (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | |
| GDP growth | 0.016** | -0.000 | 0.002 | 0.017** |
| (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | |
| leftist ideology of government | -0.285** | -0.048 | -0.224** | -0.208** |
| (0.04) | (0.04) | (0.04) | (0.03) | |
| right ideology of government | -0.349** | -0.277** | -0.348** | -0.477** |
| (0.04) | (0.04) | (0.04) | (0.04) | |
| democracy | 0.014 | 0.021 | 0.073** | 0.182** |
| (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | |
| regulatory quality | -0.232** | -0.003 | 0.251** | -0.319** |
| (0.06) | (0.07) | (0.06) | (0.06) | |
| government effectiveness | 0.309** | 0.322** | 0.167** | 0.336** |
| (0.05) | (0.05) | (0.05) with time effects | (0.05) | |
| number of observations | 25095 |
[i] Notes: Results significant at 1% level are marked with**. Results significant at 5% level are marked with*. The sample is drawn from inter alia WVS database (2015) and VDem database (2016) and consists of 29,397 respondent level observations from 27 post-socialist and 17 non post-socialist countries. Post-socialist countries: Albania, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Bulgaria, Belarus, Czech Rep., Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Romania, Slovakia, Ukraine, Macedonia, Bosnia, Serbia, Montenegro, Kyrgyzstan, Georgia, Hungary, Poland, Russia, Slovenia, Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan. Non post-socialist countries: Australia, Finland, Germany, New Zealand, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United States, Canada, Japan, South Korea, Cyprus, France, Italy, Netherlands, Great Britain.
Fig. 3
The impact of the empowerment rights on the level of life satisfaction in post-socialist countries.