Rapid changes in surface water carbonate chemistry during Antarctic sea ice melt

Elizabeth M. Jones; Dorothee C. E. Bakker; Hugh J. Venables; Michael J. Whitehouse; Rebecca E. Korb; Andrew J. Watson

doi:10.1111/j.1600-0889.2010.00496.x

Rapid changes in surface water carbonate chemistry during Antarctic sea ice melt

Tellus B: Chemical and Physical Meteorology

Volume 62 (2010): Issue 5

By: Elizabeth M. Jones, Dorothee C. E. Bakker, Hugh J. Venables, Michael J. Whitehouse, Rebecca E. Korb and Andrew J. Watson

Open Access

|Jan 2010

Abstract

The effect of sea ice melt on the carbonate chemistry of surface waters in the Weddell–Scotia Confluence, Southern Ocean, was investigated during January 2008. Contrasting concentrations of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC), total alkalinity (TA) and the fugacity of carbon dioxide (fCO₂) were observed in and around the receding sea ice edge. The precipitation of carbonate minerals such as ikaite (CaCO₃·6H₂O) in sea ice brine has the net effect of decreasing DIC and TA and increasing the fCO₂ in the brine. Deficits in DIC up to 12 ± 3 ¼mol kg^-1 in the marginal ice zone (MIZ) were consistent with the release of DIC-poor brines to surface waters during sea ice melt. Biological utilization of carbon was the dominant processes and accounted for 41 ± 1 ¼mol kg^-1 of the summer DIC deficit. The data suggest that the combined effects of biological carbon uptake and the precipitation of carbonates created substantial undersaturation in fCO₂ of 95 μatm in the MIZ during summer sea ice melt. Further work is required to improve the understanding of ikaite chemistry in Antarctic sea ice and its importance for the sea ice carbon pump.

References

Ackley , S. E and Sullivan , C. W . 1994 . Physical controls on the development and characteristics of Antarctic sea-ice biolog-ical communities-a review and synthesis . Deep-Sea Res. I 41 , 1583 – 1604 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Alvarez , M. , Rios , A. E. and Roson , G. 2002. Spatio-temporal variability of air-sea fluxes of carbon dioxide and oxygen in the Bransfield and Gerlache Straits during Austral summer 1995-96. Deep-Sea Res. II 49 , 643 - 662 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Anderson , L. A. and Sarmiento , J. L . 1994 . Redfield Ratios of reminer-alization determined by nutrient data analysis . Global Biogeochem. Cycle 8 , 65 – 80 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Ardelan , M. V ., Holm-Hansen , O. , Hewes , C. D. , Reiss , C. S. , Silva , N. S. and co-authors . 2010 . Natural iron enrichment around the Antarctic Peninsula in the Southern Ocean. Biogeosciences 7 , 11 - 25 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Bakker , D. C. E. , de Baar , H. J. W. and Bathmann , U. V . 1997 . Changes of carbon dioxide in surface waters during spring in the Southern Ocean. Deep-Sea Res. 11 44 , 91 - 127 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Bakker , D.C.E. , Hoppema , M. , Schroder , M. , Geibert , W. and de Baar , H. J. W . 2008 . A rapid transition from ice covered CO2-rich waters to a biologically mediated CO2 sink in the eastern Weddell Gyre . Biogeosciences 5 , 1373 – 1386 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Bellerby , R. G. J. , Hoppema , M. , Fahrbach , E. , de Baar , H. J. W. and Stoll , M. H. C . 2004 . Interannual controls on Weddell Sea surface water fCO2 during the autumn-winter transition phase . Deep-Sea Res. I 51 , 793 – 808 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Blain , S. , Queguiner , B. , Armand , L. , Belviso , S. , Bombled , B. and co-authors . 2007 . Effect of natural iron fertilization on carbon se-questration in the Southern Ocean. Nature 446 , 1070 - 1075 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Brainerd , K. E. and Gregg , M. C . 1995 . Surface mixed and mixing layer depths. Deep-Sea Res. 1 42 , 1521 - 1543 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Buma , A. G. J. , Gieskes , W. W. C. and Thomsen , H. A . 1992 . Abun-dance of cryptophyceae and chlorophyll b containing organisms in the Weddell-Scotia Confluence area in the spring of 1988 . Polar Biol . 12 , 43 – 52 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Carmack , E. C. and Foster , T. D . 1975 . Flow of water out of Weddell Sea . Deep-Sea Res . 22 , 711 – 724 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Ciattaglia , L. , Colombo , T. and Masarie , K. A . 1999 . Continuous mea-surements of atmospheric CO2 at Jubany Station, Antarctica . Taus 51B , 713 – 721 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Comiso , J. C. , McClain , C. R. , Sullivan , C. W. , Ryan , J. P. and Leonard, C. L. 1993. Coastal Zone Color Scanner pigment concentrations in the Southern Ocean and relationships to geophysical surface-features. J. Geophys. Res . 98 , 2419 - 2451 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
de Baar , H. J. W. , Buma , A. G. J. , Nolting , R. F. , Cadee , G. C. , Jacques , G. and co-authors 1990 . On iron limitation of the Southern Ocean - experimental observations in the Weddell and Scotia Seas. Mar Ecol. Progr. Ser 65 , 105 - 122 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Deacon , G. E. R. 1979 . Weddell Gyre. Deep-Sea Res . 26 , 981 - 995 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Delille , B. , Jourdain , B. , Borges , A. V. , Tison , J. L. and Delille , D. 2007 . Biogas (CO2,02, dimethylsulfide) dynamics in spring Antarctic fast ice. Limnol. Oceanogr . 52 , 1367 - 1379 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Dickson , A. G. and Millero , F. J . 1987 . A comparison of the equilibrium constants for the dissociation of carbonic acid in seawater media . Deep-Sea Res . 34 , 1733 – 1743 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Dickson , A. G . 1981 . An exact definition of total alkalinity and a proce-dure for the estimation of alkalinity and total inorganic carbon from titration data . Deep-Sea Res . 28 , 609 – 623 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
DOE 2007 . In: Guide to Best Practices for Ocean CO2 Measurements (eds A.G. Dickson , C.L. Sabine and J.R. Christian ). PICES Special Publication 3 , 1 – 191 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Dieckmann , G. S. , Nehrke , G. , Papadimitriou S. , Gottlicher , J. , Steininger , R. and co-authors . 2008 . Calcium carbonate as ilcaite crystals in Antarctic sea ice. Geophys. Res. Lett ., 35 . doi: 10.1029/2008GL033540 .
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Dulaiova , H. , Ardelan , M. V. , Henderson , P. B. and Charette , M. A . 2009 . Shelf-derived iron inputs drive biological productiv-ity in the southern Drake Passage. Global Biogeochem. Cycle 23 , doi: 10.1029/2008GB003406 .
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Friis , K. , Körtzinger , A. and Wallace , D. W. R . 2003 . The salinity nor-malization of marine inorganic carbon chemistry data. Geophys. Res. Lett . 30 , doi: 10.1029/2002GL015898 .
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
GEBCO , 2001 . General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans Digital Atlas . British Oceanographic Data Centre, Liverpool , UK .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Gibson , J. A. E. and Trull , T. W . 1999 . Annual cycle of CO2 under sea ice and in open water in Prydz Bay, east Antarctica . Mar Chem . 66 , 187 – 200 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Gill , A. E . 1973 . Circulation and bottom water production in Weddell Sea . Deep-Sea Res . 20 , 111 – 140 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Gleitz , M. , Grossmann , S. , Scharek , R. and Smetacek , V . 1996 . Ecology of diatom and bacterial assemblages in water associated with melt-ing summer sea ice in the Weddell Sea, Antarctica . Antarct. Sci . 8 , 135 – 146 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Gleitz , M. , Vonderloeff , M. R. , Thomas , D. N. , Dieckmann , G. S. and Millero , F. J . 1995 . Comparison of summer and winter inorganic carbon, oxygen and nutrient concentrations in Antarctic sea ice brine . Mar Chem . 51 , 81 – 91 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Gouretski , V. V. and Danilov , A. I . 1993 . Weddell Gyre - structure of the eastern boundary. Deep-Sea Res. 1 40 , 561 - 582 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Heinze , C. , Maier-Reimer E. and Winn , K . 1991 . GlacialpCO2 reduction by the World Ocean: experiements with the Hamburg carbon cycle model . Paleoceanography . 6 , 395 – 430 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Helbling , E. W. , Amos , A. F. , Silva , N. , Villafane , V. and Holm-Hansen, O. 1993. Phytoplankton distribution and abundance as related to a frontal system north of Elephant Island, Antarctica. Antarct. Sci . 5 , 25 - 36 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Hewes , C. D. , Reiss , C. S. , Kahru , M. , Mitchell , B. G. and Holm-Hansen, O. 2008. Control of phytoplankton biomass by dilution and mixed layer depth in the western Weddell-Scotia Confluence. Mar EcoL Prog. Ser 366 , 15 - 29 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Holm-Hansen , O. and Hewes , C. D. 2004. Deep chlorophyll-a maxima (DCMs) in Antarctic waters-I. relationships between DCMs and the physical, chemical, and optical conditions in the upper water column. Polar Biology 27 , 699 - 710 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Holm-Hansen , O. and Mitchell , B. G. 1991. Spatial and temporal dis-tribution of phytoplankton and primary production in the western Bransfield Strait region. Deep-Sea Res. A 38 , 961 - 980 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Hoppema , M. , de Baar , H. J. W. , Fahrbach , E. , Hellmer , H. H. and Klein , B . 2003 . Substantial advective iron loss diminishes phytoplankton production in the Antarctic Zone. Global Biogeochem. Cycle . 17 , doi: 10.1029/2002GB001957 .
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Hoppema , M. , Fahrbach , E. , Schroder , M. , Wisotzki , A. and de Baar , H. J. W . 1995 . Winter-summer differences of carbon dioxide and oxygen in the Weddell Sea surface layer . Mar Chem . 51 , 177 – 192 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Hoppema , M. , Fahrbach , E. , Stoll , M. H. C. and de Baar , H. J. W . 1999 . Annual uptake of atmospheric CO2 by the Weddell Sea derived from a surface layer balance, including estimations of entrainment and new production . J. Mar Sys . 19 , 219 – 233 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Hoppema , M. , Stoll , M. H. C. and de Baar , H. J. W . 2000 . CO2 in the Weddell Gyre and Antarctic Circumpolar Current: austral autumn and early winter . Mar Chem . 72 , 203 – 220 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Ishii , M. , Inoue , H. Y. and Matsueda , H . 2002 . Net community produc-tion in the marginal ice zone and its importance for the variability of the oceanic pCO2 in the Southern Ocean south of Australia. Deep-Sea Res. 11 49 , 1691 - 1706 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Ishii , M. , Inoue , H.Y. , Matsueda , H. and Tanoue , E . 1998 . Close cou-pling between seasonal biological production and dynamics of dis-solved inorganic carbon in the Indian Ocean sector and the western Pacific Ocean sector of the Antarctic Ocean . Deep-Sea Res. I 45 , 1187 – 1209 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Jacques , G. and Panouse , M . 1991 . Biomass and composition of size fractionated phytoplankton in the Weddell—Scotia Confluence area . Polar Biol . 11 , 315 – 328 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Jennings , J. C. , Gordon , L. I. and Nelson , D. M . 1984 . Nutrient depletion indicates high primary productivity in the Weddell Sea . Nature 309 , 51 – 54 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Jouandet , M. P. , Blain , S. , Metzl , N. , Brunet , C. , Trull , T. W. and co-authors 2008. A seasonal carbon budget for a naturally iron-fertilised bloom over the Kerguelen Plateau in the Southern Ocean. Deep-Sea Res. 11 55 , 856 - 867 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Johnson , K. M. , Sieburth , J. M. , Williams , P. J. L. and Brandstrom , L . 1987 . Coulometric total carbon dioxide analysis for marine studies—automation and calibration . Mar Chem . 21 , 117 – 133 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Kang , S. H. , Kang , J. S. , Lee , S. , Chung , K. H. , Kim , D. and co-authors 2001. Antarctic phytoplanlcton assemblages in the marginal ice zone of the northwestern Weddell Sea. J. Plankton Res . 23 , 333 - 352 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Klatt , O. , Roether , W. , Hoppema , M. , Bulsiewicz , K. , Fleischmann , U. and co-authors . 2002 . Repeated CFC sections at the Green-wich Meridian in the Weddell Sea. J. Geophys. Res . 107 , doi: 10.1029/2000JC000731 .
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Korb , R. E. , Whitehouse , M. J. , Thorpe , S. E. and Gordon , M . 2005 . Primary production across the Scotia Sea in relation to the physico-chemical environment . J. Mar Sys . 57 , 231 – 249 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Korb , R. E. , Whitehouse , M. J. , Gordon , M. , Ward , P. and Poulton , A. J. 2010. Summer microplanlcton community structure across the Scotia Sea: implications for biological carbon export. Biogeosciences 7 , 343 - 356 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Krembs , C. and Engel , A . 2001 . Abundance and variability of microor-ganisms and transparent exopolymer particles across the ice-water interface of melting first-year sea ice in the Laptev Sea (Arctic) . Mar Biol . 138 , 173 – 185 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Lancelot , C. , Mathot , S. , Veth , C. and Debaar , H . 1993 . Factors con-trolling phytoplanlcton ice edge blooms in the Marginal Ice Zone of the northwestern Weddell Sea during sea ice retreat 1988 -field observations and mathematical modelling . Polar Biol . 13 , 377 – 387 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Lannuzel , D. , Schoemann , V. , de Jong , J. , Chou , L. , Delille , B. and co-authors . 2008 . Iron study during a time series in the western Weddell pack ice. Mar Chem . 108 , 85 - 95 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Lannuzel , D. , Schoemann , V. , de Jong , J. , Tison , J. L. and Chou , L . 2007 . Distribution and biogeochemical behaviour of iron in the East Antarctic sea ice . Mar Chem . 106 , 18 – 32 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Lewis , E. and Wallace , D. W. R . 1998 . CO2SYS-Program developed for the CO2 system calculations . Carbon Dioxide Inf. Anal. Centre. Report ORNL/CDIAC-105 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Löscher , B. M. , de Baar , H. J. W. , de Jong , J. T. M. , Veth , C. and Dehairs , E 1997 . The distribution of Fe in the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. Deep-Sea Res. 11 44 , 143 - 187 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Marion , G. M . 2001 . Carbonate mineral solubility at low tempera-tures in the Na K Mg Ca H Cl 504. OH HCO3-0O3-0O2-H20 sys-tem . Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 65 , 1883 – 1896 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Martin , J. H . 1990 . Glacial-interglacial CO2 change: the iron hypothesis . Paleoceanography 5 , 1 – 13 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Mehrbach , C. , Culberson , C. H. , Hawley , J. E. and Pytkowicz , R. M . 1973 . Measurement of the apparent dissociation constants of car-bonic acid in seawater at atmospheric pressure . LimnoL Oceanogr 18 , 897 – 907 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Meiners , K. M. , Papadimitriou , S. , Thomas , D. N. , Norman , L. and Dieckmann , G. S . 2009 . Biogeochemical conditions and ice algal photosynthetic parameters in Weddell Sea ice during early spring . Polar Biol . 32 , 1055 – 1065 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Minas , H. J. and Minas , M . 1992 . Net community production in high nutrient-low chlorophyll waters of the tropical and Antarctic Oceans -grazing vs iron hypothesis . OceanoL Acta 15 , 145 – 162 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Naveira Garabato , A. C. , Heywood , K. J. and Stevens , D. P . 2002 . Modification and pathways of Southern Ocean Deep Waters in the Scotia Sea. Deep-Sea Res. 1 49 , 681 - 705 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Nomura , D. , Inoue , H. Y. and Yoyota T . 2006 . The effect of sea-ice growth on air-sea CO2 flux in a tank experiment . Tellus 58B , 418 – 426 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Nolting , R. F. , de Baar , H. J. W. , Vanbennekom , A. J. and Masson , A . 1991 . Cadmium, copper and iron in the Scotia Sea, Weddell Sea and Weddell Scotia Confluence (Antarctica) . Mar Chem . 35 , 219 – 243 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Orsi , A. H. , Johnson , G. C. and Bullister , J. L . 1999 . Circulation, mix-ing, and production of Antarctic Bottom Water . Progr Oceanogr 43 , 55 – 109 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Orsi , A. H. , Whitworth , T. and Nowlin , W. D . 1995 . On the meridional extent and fronts of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. Deep-Sea Res. 1 42 , 641 - 673 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Papadimitriou , S. , Kennedy , H. , Kattner , G. , Diecicmann , G. S. and Thomas , D. N . 2004 . Experimental evidence for carbonate precipi-tation and CO2 degassing during sea ice formation . Geochim. Cos-mochim. Acta 68 , 1749 – 1761 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Papadimitriou , S. , Thomas , D. N. , Kennedy , H. , Haas , C. , Kuosa , F. and co-authors . 2007 . Biogeochemical composition of natural sea ice brines from the Weddell Sea during early austral summer . LimnoL Oceanogr 52 , 1809– 1823 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Parsons , T R. , Maita , Y. , Lalli , C. M. 1984. A Manual of Chemical and Biological Methods for Seawater Analysis . Pergamon Press , Oxford , 1 - 173 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Patterson , S. L. and Sievers , H. A . 1980 . The Weddell—Scotia Conflu-ence . J. Phys. Oceanogr 10 , 1584 – 1610 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Pollard , R. T. , Lucas , M. I. and Read , J. F . 2002 . Physical controls on biogeochemical zonation in the Southern Ocean. Deep-Sea Res. 11 49 , 3289 - 3305 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Pondaven , P. , Ragueneau , O. , Treguer, R , Hauvespre , A. , Dezileua , L. and co-authors . 2000 . Resolving the ‘opal paradox’ in the Southern Ocean. Nature 405 , 168 - 172 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Redfield , A. C. , Ketchum , B. H. and Richards , E A . 1963 . The influence of organisms on the composition of seawater . In: The Sea. Vol.2. The Composition of Seawater (ed. M.N. Hill ). Wiley , New York , 26 – 77 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Revelle , R. and Suess , H. E . 1957 . Carbon dioxide exchange between atmosphere and ocean and the question of an increase of atmospheric CO2 during the past decades . Tellus 9 , 18 – 27 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Rintoul , S. R. and Sokolov , S . 2001 . Baroclinic transport variability of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current south of Australia (VVOCE repeat section 5R3) . J. Geophys. Res . 106 , 2815 – 2832 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Rubin , S I. , Takahashi , T. , Chipman , D. W. and Goddard , J. G. 1998. Primary productivity and nutrient utilization ratios in the Pacific sec-tor of the Southern Ocean based on seasonal changes in seawater chemistry. Deep-Sea Res. 1 45 , 1211 - 1234 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Rysgaard , S. , Glud , R. N. , Sejr , M. K. , Bendtsen , J. and Chris-tensen , P. B . 2007 . Inorganic carbon transport during sea ice growth and decay: a carbon pump in polar seas. J. Geophys. Res . 112 , doi: 10.1029/2006JC003572 .
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Rysgaard , S. , Bendtsen , J. , Pedersen , L. T. , Ramlov , H. and Glud , R. N . 2009 . Increased CO2 uptake due to sea ice growth and decay in Nordic Seas. J. Geophys. Res . 114 , doi: 10.1029/2008JC005088.
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Sakshaug , E. , Slagstad , D. and Holm-Hansen , O. 1991. Factors control-ling the development of phytoplanlcton blooms in the Antarctic Ocean - a mathematical model. Mar Chem . 35 , 259 - 271 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Sanudo-Wilhelmy , S. A. , Olsen , K. A. , Scelfo , J. M. , Foster , T. D. and Flegal , A. R . 2002 . Trace metal distributions off the Antarctic Peninsula in the Weddell Sea . Mar Chem . 77 , 157 – 170 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Schroder , M. and Fahrbach , E . 1999 . On the structure and the transport of the eastern Weddell Gyre. Deep-Sea Res. 11 46 , 501 - 527 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Schuster , U. and Watson , A. J. 2007. A variable and decreasing sink for atmospheric CO2 in the North Atlantic. J. Geophys. Res . 112 , doi: 10.1029/2006JC003941 .
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Sedwick , P. N. and DiTullio , G. R . 1997 . Regulation of algal blooms in Antarctic shelf waters by the release of iron from melting sea ice . Geophys. Res. Lett . 24 , 2515 – 2518 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Shim , J. , Kang , Y. C. , Kim , D. and Choi , S.-H . 2006 . Distribution of net community production and surfacepCO2 in the Scotia Sea, Antarctica, during austral spring 2001 . Mar Chem . 101 , 68 – 84 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Sievers , H. A. and Nowlin , W. D . 1984 . The stratification and water masses at Drake Passage . J. Geophys. Res . 89 , 489 – 514 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Smith , W. O. and Nelson, D. M. 1985. Phytoplanlcton bloom produced by a receding ice edge in the Ross Sea-spatial coherence with the density field. Science 227 , 163 - 166 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Smith , W. O. and Nelson, D. M. 1986. Importance of ice edge phyto-plankton production in the Southern Ocean. Bioscience 36 , 251 - 257 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Stark , J. D. , Donlon , C. J. , Martin , M. J. and McCulloch , M. E. 2007. OSTIA: an operational, high resolution, real time, global sea surface temperature analysis system. In: Marine Challenges: Coastline to Deep Sea . Conference proceedings. Oceans '07 IEEE Aberdeen.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Stoll , M. H. C. , de Baar , H. J. W. , Hoppema , M. and Fahrbach , E. 1999. New early winter fCO2 data reveal continuous uptake of CO2 by the Weddell Sea. Tellus 51B , 679 - 687 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Stoll , M. H. C. , Thomas , H. , de Baar , H. J. W. , Zondervan , I. , de Jong , E. and co-authors . 2002 . Biological versus physical processes as drivers of large oscillations of the air-sea CO2 flux in the Antarctic marginal ice zone during summer. Deep-Sea Res. 1 49 , 1651 - 1667 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Sweeney , C. , Smith , W O. , Hales , B. , Bidigare , R. R. , Carlson , C. A. and co-authors . 2000 . Nutrient and carbon removal ratios and fluxes in the Ross Sea, Antarctica. Deep-Sea Res. 11 47 , 3395 - 3421 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Takahashi , T. , Olafsson , J. , Goddard , J. G. , Chipman , D. W. and Suther-land , S. C . 1993 . Seasonal variation of CO2 and nutrients in the high latitude surface oceans-a comparative-Study . Global Biogeochem. Cycle 7 , 843 – 878 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Takahashi , T. , Sutherland , S. C. , Wanninlchof , R. , Sweeney , C. , Feely , R. A. and co-authors . 2009 . Climatological mean and decadal change in surface ocean pCO2, and net sea-air CO2 flux over the global oceans. Deep-Sea Res. 11 56 , 554 - 577 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Tynan , C. T . 1998 . Ecological importance of the Southern Boundary of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current . Nature 392 , 708 – 710 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Weiss , R. F. , Ostlund , H. G. and Craig , H . 1979 . Geochemical studies of the Weddell Sea . Deep-Sea Res . 26 , 1093 – 1120 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Whitehouse , M. J ., 1997 . Automated Seawater Nutrient Chemistry . British Antarctic Survey , Cambridge , 1 – 14 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Whitehouse , M. J. , Korb , R. E. , Atkinson , A. , Thorpe , S. E. and Gordon , M . 2008 . Formation, transport and decay of an intense phytoplankton bloom within the high-nutrient low-chlorophyll belt of the Southern Ocean . J. Mar Sys . 70 , 150 – 167 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Whitworth , T. and Nowlin , W. D . 1987 . Water masses and currents of the Southern Ocean at the Greenwich Meridian . J. Geophys. Res . 92 , 6462 – 6476 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Whitworth , T. , Nowlin , W. D. , Orsi , A. H. , Locarnini , R. A. and Smith , S. G . 1994 . Weddell Sea shelf water in the Bransfield Strait and Weddell-Scotia Confluence. Deep-Sea Res. 1 41 , 629 - 641 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Zeebe , R. E. and Wolf-Gladrow , D. A . 2001 . Equilibrium. In: CO2 in Seawater: Equilibrium, Kinetics, Isotopes (ed. D. Halpern ). Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1 - 83 .
Search in Google Scholar Back to article

Articles in this issue

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0889.2010.00496.x | Journal eISSN: 1600-0889

Journal RSS Feed

Language: English

Page range: 621 - 635

Submitted on: Dec 18, 2009

Accepted on: Jul 8, 2010

Published on: Jan 1, 2010

Published by: Stockholm University Press

In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services

© 2010 Elizabeth M. Jones, Dorothee C. E. Bakker, Hugh J. Venables, Michael J. Whitehouse, Rebecca E. Korb, Andrew J. Watson, published by Stockholm University Press
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.

Volume 62 (2010): Issue 5