Figure 1
Model structure.
Figure 2
Simulation process.
Figure 3
Building footprints and heat distribution grid layout.
Figure 4
Overview case designs.
Table 1
Case parameters.
| CASE | COMPONENT | PARAMETER | VALUE | SOURCE |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Reference | DH | – | – | – |
| Case 1.1 | Decentral PV | Hourly supply profiles | Only residential buildings, (Åberg, 2024) | |
| Decentral HPs | SPFs | SFH: 3.3; MFH: 3; NRB: 3 | (DEA, 2025c) | |
| Dimensioning factor | 1 | Assumption | ||
| Case 1.2 | Decentral PV | Identical to case 1.1 | – | – |
| Decentral EVs | Hourly demand profiles | Only residential buildings, (Åberg, 2024) | ||
| Decentral HPs | Identical to case 1.1 | – | – | |
| Central BESS | Capacity | 1.5 MWh | Derived from (DEA, 2025a) | |
| Hourly efficiencies (charge | discharge | storage) | 0.98 | 0.97 | 0.999958 | (DEA, 2025a) | ||
| Initial charge percentage | 0% | Assumption | ||
| Maximum loads (charge | discharge) | 750 kW | 750 kW | Derived from (DEA, 2025a) | ||
| Case 2.1 | Decentral PV | Identical to case 1.1 | – | – |
| HDR | Space heating demand reduction | 40% | Assumption, cf. (Savvidou and Nykvist, 2020) | |
| CDH | Spatial distribution of community | See Figure 3 | Reality and assumptions | |
| User temperatures (supply | return) | 60°C | 40°C | (Energiföretagen Sverige, 2021, pp. 21, 24) | ||
| Burial depth | 60 cm | Cf. (Frederiksen and Werner, 2013, p. 331) | ||
| Ground temperature | Profile Uppsala 60 cm | Interpolation of 40 and 100 cm from 2010 | ||
| Dimensioning DHW flow | Pipe specific | (Energiföretagen Sverige, 2021, p. 22) | ||
| Dimensioning allowed pressure loss | 150 Pa/m | (Frederiksen and Werner, 2013, pp. 442–443, 458) | ||
| Absolute roughness pipes | 0.1 mm | (Frederiksen and Werner, 2013, p. 444) | ||
| Dimensioning friction factor pipes | 0.02 | (Frederiksen and Werner, 2013, p. 444) | ||
| Efficiency heat exchangers | 0.98 | Cf. (DEA, 2025c) | ||
| Minimum flow in every pipe | 0.03 kg/s | Assumption | ||
| Heat conductivity pipe insulation | 0.03 W/m*K | (Frederiksen and Werner, 2013, pp. 77, 317) | ||
| Heat conductivity ground | 1.5 W/m*K | (Frederiksen and Werner, 2013, p. 80) | ||
| Central HP | SPF | 3 | Cf. (DEA, 2025b) | |
| Dimensioning factor | 0.7 | Assumption, cf. (Björk et al., 2013, p. 41) | ||
| Case 2.2 | Decentral PV | Identical to case 1.1 | – | – |
| HDR | Identical to case 2.1 | – | – | |
| CDH | Identical to case 2.1 | – | – | |
| Power CHP | Plant type | Biogas Microturbine | Assumption, cf. (Salomón et al., 2011) | |
| Power capacity | 180 kW | Assumption, cf. (Salomón et al., 2011) | ||
| Power-to-heat coefficient | 0.3 | Assumption, cf. (Salomón et al., 2011) | ||
| Overall efficiency | 85% | Assumption, cf. (Salomón et al., 2011) | ||
| Energy focus (heat vs. power) | power | Assumption | ||
| Central TES | Capacity | 1.5 MWh | Assumption, based on SSR increase | |
| Hourly efficiencies (charge | discharge | storage) | 1 | 1 | 0.99 | Cf. (DEA, 2025a) | ||
| Initial charge percentage | 0% | Assumption | ||
| Maximum loads (charge | discharge) | 300 kW | 300 kW | Assumption, based on actual max load used |
[i] DH: Conventional District Heating; PV: Photovoltaics; HP: Heat pump; SPF: Seasonal performance factor; SFH: Single-family house; MFH: Multi-family house; NRB: Non-residential buildings; EV: Electric vehicle; BESS: Battery energy storage system; HDR: Heat demand reduction; CDH: Community district heating; DHW: Domestic hot water; CHP: Combined heat and power; TES: Thermal energy storage.
Figure 5
Reference case – space heat demand, domestic hot water and external DH heat supply.
Figure 6
Reference case – decentral electricity demand and outdoor temperature.
Figure 7
Case 1.1 – decentral electricity demand, PV supply and external electricity grid.
Figure 8
Case 1.1 – total heat and electricity data.
Figure 9
Case 1.2 – decentral EV demand, central BESS balancing and BESS charging state.
Figure 10
Case 1.2 – external electricity grid and total electricity data.
Figure 11
Case 2.1 – space heating demand and CDH heat losses.
Figure 12
Case 2.1 – CDH heat load and central heat pump supply.
Figure 13
Case 2.1 – central electricity demand, external DH grid and external electricity grid.
Figure 14
Case 2.1 – total heat and total electricity data.
Figure 15
Case 2.2 – CHP heat supply, CHP electricity supply and CHP final energy demand.
Figure 16
Case 2.2 – thermal storage balancing and thermal storage charging state.
Figure 17
Case 2.2 – external DH grid and external electricity grid.
Figure 18
Case 2.2 – total heat and total electricity data.
Table 2
Case comparison – KPIs and statistics.
| KPI/CASE | UNIT | REFERENCE | CASE 1.1 | CASE 1.2 | CASE 2.1 | CASE 2.2 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Total Heat Demand | GWh | 2.098 | 2.098 | 2.098 | 2.128 | 2.314 |
| Total Heat Supply | GWh | 0 | 2.098 | 2.098 | 2.111 | 1.871 |
| Total Electricity Demand | GWh | 0.754 | 1.439 | 1.579 | 1.457 | 0.754 |
| Total Electricity Supply | GWh | 0 | 0.318 | 0.361 | 0.318 | 0.835 |
| Heat SCR | % | 0 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 95.62 |
| Heat SSR | % | 0 | 100 | 100 | 99.18 | 77.30 |
| Electricity SCR | % | 0 | 83.29 | 100 | 89.04 | 90.25 |
| Electricity SSR | % | 0 | 18.42 | 22.87 | 19.44 | 100.00 |
| Average Supply Temperature | °C | – | – | – | 79.19 | 79.19 |
| Average Return Temperature | °C | – | – | – | 52.35 | 52.35 |
| Annual Relative Heat Losses | % | – | – | – | 33.39 | 33.39 |
Figure 19
Case comparison – duration curves for total heat demand and external DH grid.
Figure 20
Case comparison – duration curves for total electricity and external electricity grid.