Table 1
Articles reviewed in this study
| Number | Author(s) | Year | Research Type | Research Context |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Calvin & Freeburg | 2010 | Qualitative | Undergraduate |
| 2 | Doherty | 2006 | Quantitative | Undergraduate |
| 3 | Dumais, Rizzuto, Cleary & Dowden | 2013 | Mixed Method | An online degree program |
| 4 | Dzakiria | 2012 | Qualitative | No information |
| 5 | Erickson & Noonan | 2010 | Quantitative | Graduate |
| 6 | Furnborough | 2012 | Qualitative | A language Course |
| 7 | Grace & Smith | 2001 | Qualitative | A vocational training course |
| 8 | Joo | 2014 | Qualitative | Undergraduate |
| 9 | Kahu, Stephens, Zepke & Leach | 2014 | Qualitative | Undergraduate |
| 10 | Nor | 2011 | Mixed Method | Undergraduate |
| 11 | Östlund | 2005 | Mixed Method | Undergraduate |
| 12 | Park & Choi | 2009 | Quantitative | High school,Undergraduate, and Graduate |
| 13 | Pierrakeas, Xeno, Panagiotakopoulos & Vergidis | 2004 | Qualitative | Undergraduate andgraduate |
| 14 | Rao & Giuli | 2010 | Mixed Method | Graduate |
| 15 | Selwyn | 2011 | Qualitative | Undergraduate and graduate |
| 16 | Tekinarslan | 2004 | Qualitative | Graduate |
| 17 | Venter | 2003 | Qualitative | Graduate |
| 18 | Vergidis & Panagiotakopoulos | 2002 | Quantitative | Graduate |
| 19 | Willging & Johnson | 2004 | Qualitative | Graduate |
| 20 | Xenos, Pierrakeas & Pintelas | 2002 | Qualitative | Undergraduate |
| 21 | Yasmin | 2013 | Qualitative | Graduate |
| 22 | Zhang & Krug | 2012 | Qualitative | Graduate |
| 23 | Zembylas | 2008 | Qualitative | An online course |
| 24 | De Paepe et al. | 2018 | Qualitative | Educators |
| 25 | Vanslambrouck, Zhu, Tondeur, Philipsen & Lombaerts | 2016 | Qualitative | Teacher Training Program |
| 26 | Gravani | 2015 | Qualitative | Higher Education System |
| 27 | Choi & Kim | 2018 | Quantitative | Online Degree Program |
| 28 | Choi & Park | 2018 | Quantitative | Online Degree Program |
| 29 | Knestrick et al. | 2016 | Quantitative | Graduate |
| 30 | Iloh | 2018 | Qualitative | Graduate |
| 31 | Musita, Ogange & Lugendo | 2018 | Qualitative | Graduate |
| 32 | Boateng | 2015 | Quantitative | Graduate |
| 33 | Chang & Kang | 2016 | Quantitative | Graduate |
| 34 | Kim & Park | 2015 | Quantitative | Graduate |
| 35 | Thistoll & Yates | 2016 | Qualitative | Distance Vocational Education |
| 36 | McGee, Windes & Torres | 2017 | Qualitative | Online Teaching Expert |
Table 2
Participants in the articles reviewed in this study
| Number | Age (Mean or Range) | Female-Male (N) | Location |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 36 | 174-336 | USA |
| 2 | 28 | 7103-3343 | USA |
| 3 | 29 | Unavailable | USA |
| 4 | 42-51 | 3-5 | Malaysia |
| 5 | 21-65 | 42-9 | USA |
| 6 | Unavailable | 28-15 | UK |
| 7 | Unavailable | 1-3 | Australia |
| 8 | Unavailable | Unavailable | Korea |
| 9 | 25-59 | 15-4 | New Zealand |
| 10 | 50-59 | 22-50 | Malaysia |
| 11 | Unavailable | Unavailable | Sweden |
| 12 | 20-Above 40 | 105-42 | Korea |
| 13 | 23-45 | 357-873 | Greece |
| 14 | Unavailable | Unavailable | USA |
| 15 | 21-71 | 30-30 | Africa, Asia, Australia, Europe, USA |
| 16 | Unavailable | Unavailable | Turkey |
| 17 | Unavailable | 24-19 | Europe, Asia Pacific |
| 18 | 23-39 | 643-577 | Greece |
| 19 | Unavailable | 39-16 | USA |
| 20 | 31 | 217-535 | Greece |
| 21 | 25-45 | 6390-5758 | India |
| 22 | 20-50 | 3-9 | Canada, Japan, China, USA |
| 23 | 27-50 | 17-5 | Cyprus |
| 24 | Unavailable | Unavailable | Belgium |
| 25 | 23-53 | 4-5 | Belgium |
| 26 | 25-55 | 10-6 | Cyprus |
| 27 | 30-49 | 1377-2085 | Korea |
| 28 | 30-49 | 761-512 | Korea |
| 29 | 33 | 780-67 | USA |
| 30 | 25-51 | 21-13 | USA |
| 31 | 18-35 | 8-8 | Kenya |
| 32 | Unavailable | Unavailable | Ghana |
| 33 | 20-60 | Unavailable | USA |
| 34 | Unavailable | Unavailable | Korea |
| 35 | Unavailable | Unavailable | New Zealand |
| 36 | Unavailable | Unavailable | USA |
Figure 1
Data Collection Procedure and Decision-Making Process
Table 3
Internal challenges faced by Adult Learners in Distance Education
| Sub-Themes | Concepts | Frequency |
|---|---|---|
| Management Challenges | Inability to create balance between education and work | 14 |
| Inability to create balance between education and family or social life | 14 | |
| Difficulty in time management | 6 | |
| Learning Challenges | Less commitment to education | 6 |
| Lack of interest in program or materials | 2 | |
| Inability to understand course materials | 1 | |
| Lack of prerequisite knowledge | 3 | |
| Low concentration on study | 1 | |
| Low self-confidence | 1 | |
| Technical Challenges | Difficulty in communication through the internet | 3 |
| Insufficient computing skills | 9 | |
| Difficulty in accessing reliable information | 1 |
Table 4
External challenges faced by Adult Learners in Distance Education
| Sub-Themes | Concepts | Frequency |
|---|---|---|
| Job-Related Challenges | Work overload | 1 |
| Lack of employing organization’s support | 2 | |
| Schedule conflicts | 1 | |
| Financial problems | 1 | |
| Limited time to study | 6 | |
| Domestic Challenges | Technical problems | 6 |
| Limited environment to study | 5 | |
| Lack of family support | 4 |
Table 5
Program-related challenges faced by Adult Learners in Distance Education
| Sub-themes | Concepts | Frequency |
|---|---|---|
| Tutor-related Challenges | Low interaction with tutors | 7 |
| Low interaction with learners | 8 | |
| Feeling of isolation | 5 | |
| Unsuitable course requirements | 6 | |
| Institutional Challenges | Unsuitable learning materials | 4 |
| Too difficult or demanding program | 3 | |
| Lack of institutional support | 9 |
Figure 2
Challenges Faced by Adult Learners in Distance Education