Cyberbullying victimization has emerged as a serious and rapidly growing threat within online environments, particularly among youths. It refers to the intentional use of digital platforms, such as social media, to harass, intimidate, or harm others (Wang et al., 2025). Accumulating evidence identifies cyberbullying as a significant contributor to adverse psychological outcomes, with repeated exposure increasing vulnerability to mental health problems, particularly depression (Al-Amer et al., 2025; Bussu et al., 2025; Lee et al., 2025; Nagata et al., 2025; Zhang et al., 2025). Depression is a multifaceted condition characterized by persistent low mood, diminished interest in activities, cognitive impairments, sleep disturbances, and changes in appetite (Juan et al., 2025). Even at subclinical levels, these symptoms may progressively intensify into more severe forms if left unaddressed, with broader implications for individual functioning and societal well-being (Wang et al., 2025). Taken together, existing research suggests that cyberbullying victimization constitutes a critical psychosocial stressor with substantial implications for youth mental health.
Although cyberbullying is a global phenomenon affecting youths across diverse contexts (Lee et al., 2025; Zhang et al., 2025), its implications within developing countries such as Nigeria remain underexplored. In Nigeria, increasing internet penetration has expanded youths’ engagement with digital platforms, thereby heightening their exposure to online risks. Despite this trend, there is limited context-specific empirical evidence on the mental health consequences of cyberbullying victimization (Olumide et al., 2015; Muhammad et al., 2025). This gap is further reflected in the absence of structured intervention programmes targeting cyberbullying and its psychological effects (Akuneme & Nwosu, 2024). The paucity of localized research constrains a comprehensive understanding of how cyberbullying operates within the Nigerian sociocultural context and limits the development of effective prevention and intervention strategies. Moreover, beyond documenting direct effects, there is insufficient attention to the psychological mechanisms that may explain variability in youths’ responses to cyberbullying.
One such mechanism is self-esteem, a core psychological resource that shapes how individuals perceive and respond to adverse experiences. Self-esteem refers to an individual’s overall evaluation of self-worth (Rosenberg, 1965) and has been consistently linked to adaptive coping, positive self-evaluation, and emotional resilience (Li et al., 2023; Solomon, 2025). Individuals with high self-esteem are more likely to maintain confidence in their abilities, adopt positive interpretations of challenging situations, and respond constructively to stress (Edet et al., 2023; Leary & Baumeister, 2000). In the context of cyberbullying, such individuals may be less likely to internalize negative online interactions, thereby reducing their susceptibility to depression (Lee & Ng, 2024).
In contrast, individuals with low self-esteem tend to exhibit negative self-perceptions, reduced confidence, and difficulty managing stress, making them more vulnerable to psychological distress (Leary & Baumeister, 2000). They may interpret cyberbullying victimization as a reflection of personal inadequacy and diminished social worth, thereby amplifying its emotional impact and increasing the likelihood of depressive outcomes (Orth et al., 2014). These contrasting patterns suggest that self-esteem may play a critical role in shaping the extent to which cyberbullying victimization translates into psychological distress. However, empirical research examining this moderating role, particularly within non-Western and low-resource contexts, remains limited.
The present study is grounded in Sociometer Theory (Leary & Baumeister, 2000), which conceptualizes self-esteem as an internal gauge that monitors individuals’ perceptions of social acceptance and rejection. According to this framework, fluctuations in self-esteem reflect perceived changes in social inclusion, such that experiences of rejection or exclusion lower self-esteem and increase vulnerability to psychological distress. Conversely, perceptions of social acceptance help maintain stable self-esteem and promote emotional well-being. This theoretical perspective is particularly relevant to understanding the psychological consequences of cyberbullying, which often involves public forms of rejection and social devaluation.
Importantly, Sociometer Theory may have heightened applicability within the Nigerian context, where cultural values emphasize social belonging, communal relationships, and reputation. In such settings, cyberbullying may not only affect individual self-worth but also signal broader social exclusion, thereby intensifying its psychological impact. For youths with low self-esteem, exposure to cyberbullying may reinforce feelings of rejection and inadequacy, increasing the likelihood of depressive symptoms. In contrast, those with high self-esteem may be better able to maintain a stable sense of self-worth and draw on internal resources to mitigate the emotional consequences of online harassment.
Based on this theoretical and empirical background, the present study examines whether self-esteem moderates the relationship between cyberbullying victimization and depression among Nigerian youths. Specifically, it is proposed that self-esteem will buffer the adverse effects of cyberbullying victimization, such that the association between cyberbullying and depression will be weaker among individuals with higher levels of self-esteem.
The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between cyberbullying victimization and depressive symptoms among Nigerian youths, with a specific focus on self-esteem as a moderating factor (Leary & Baumeister, 2000). Guided by Sociometer Theory, which conceptualizes self-esteem as an internal gauge of perceived social acceptance or rejection, the study investigates whether self-esteem buffers or exacerbates the impact of cyberbullying on depressive outcomes.
Situated within the Nigerian context, a low- and middle-income country experiencing rapid growth in digital media use among youths alongside limited access to mental health services, this study provides a critical examination of how experiences of online victimization interact with individual psychological resources to influence emotional well-being. By focusing on both exposures to cyberbullying and variations in self-esteem, the study aims to advance understanding of the mechanisms that shape youth mental health in digitally connected societies.
Accordingly, the study addresses the following research questions:
Is cyberbullying victimization significantly and positively associated with depressive symptoms among Nigerian youths?
Is self-esteem significantly and negatively associated with depressive symptoms among Nigerian youths?
Does self-esteem moderate the relationship between cyberbullying victimization and depressive symptoms, such that the association is weaker among youths with higher self-esteem?
A cross-sectional survey design was employed to examine the associations among cyberbullying victimization, self-esteem, and depressive symptoms among Nigerian youths. The study was conducted in Lagos State, Nigeria, purposively selected due to its diverse socio-cultural, economic, and demographic characteristics, which provide a representative context for investigating youth experiences in digitally connected environments. A total sample of 500 youths participated in the study. The sample comprised 220 males (44.0%) and 280 females (56.0%), with ages ranging from 18 to 35 years (M = 21.15, SD = 3.27). Most participants were single (82.0%), while 18.0% were married. Regarding employment status, 60.4% were employed and 39.6% were unemployed. Educational attainment varied: 19.0% completed secondary school, 28.0% held a diploma or Ordinary National Diploma (OND), 40.0% earned a bachelor’s degree, and 13.0% were engaged in or had completed postgraduate studies. In terms of residence, 64.0% lived in urban areas, while 36.0% resided in rural communities.
A convenience sampling technique was employed to recruit participants for the study, resulting in a total sample of 500 youths residing in Lagos State, Nigeria. Participants were recruited from churches, secondary schools, and higher education institutions to capture a diverse cross-section of Nigerian youths across different educational and social contexts. The selection of these sites was purposeful: churches represent community-based social networks, secondary schools provide access to adolescents in formal education, and higher education institutions capture young adults navigating advanced academic environments. This approach ensured a heterogeneous sample with variability in age, educational attainment, and social experiences, which is relevant for examining the relationships among cyberbullying victimization, self-esteem, and depressive symptoms.
Inclusion criteria were: (a) age between 18 and 35 years, (b) current residency in Lagos State, (c)willingness to participate in the study, and (d)ability to understand and respond to the survey items in English. Participants who did not meet these criteria or who declined to provide informed consent were excluded.
While convenience sampling limits generalizability to all Nigerian youths, this method provided a practical and efficient way to access a broad range of participants in both urban and rural settings. Inferential statistics were used to examine the hypothesized relationships derived from Sociometer Theory, including the moderating role of self-esteem on the association between cyberbullying and depressive symptoms. Given the sampling approach and moderate sample size, findings should be interpreted with caution, and replication with larger, randomly selected samples across other regions of Nigeria is recommended to enhance external validity.
Cyberbullying victimization: was measured using the Cyberbullying victimization and Online Aggression Survey Instrument (COASI) developed by Hinduja and Patchin (2008). The scale comprises 36 items that assess various dimensions of online aggression, such as Perpetration, Victimization, Witnessing, and Attitudes and Beliefs. This research specifically examined the victimization subscale, which measure how often individuals encounter online harassment (e.g., “Someone threatened to harm me online”). The scale was rated on a 5-point Likert scale, from 1 (Never) to 5 (Always), where higher scores indicates greater frequency of cyber victimization. Earlier research within Nigerian groups indicates strong internal consistency for the subscale, with Cronbach’s α of .80 (Olumide, 2015). A Cronbach’s alpha of .86 was observed in the current study.
Self-esteem: was assessed using a 10-item Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES) developed by Rosenberg (1965). The scale was design to examine overall self-worth. The scale is evaluated on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 4 (Strongly Agree). Sample item include; “Overall, I am content with myself”. The RSES exhibits robust psychometric characteristics, with internal consistency generally falling between α = .77 and .88, even in Nigerian populations (Adegoke et al., 2025; Balogun & Olawoye, 2013; Solomon, 2025). In the current research, a Cronbach’s alpha of .93 was recorded.
Depression: was evaluated using tan adapted version of the Self-Rating Depression Scale (SDS; Zung, 1965), consisting of 20 items that assess cognitive, emotional, psychomotor, physical, and social aspects of depression (e.g., “I feel down-hearted and sad”). Items on the scale are rated on a 4-point Likert scale that goes from 1 (Some or a little of the time) to 4 (Most of the time). High score implies a high level of depression. The SDS has demonstrated strong internal consistency (α ≈ .93) and has been validated in Nigerian population (Afolabi et al., 2008; Balogun & Olawoye, 2013). In the current study, we obtained a Cronbach’s of .91 for the scale.
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS; Version 27) was used for data analysis. Descriptive statistics were performed to summarize the demographic information of participants, such as age, gender, employment status, and marital status. Pearson correlation analysis was used to evaluate the relationship among the main study variables (cyberbullying victimization, self-esteem, and depression). The PROCESS macro for SPSS was used to examine the study’s hypotheses.
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Department of Psychology, Federal Neuro-Psychiatric Hospital, Yaba, Lagos State, Nigeria (Ref: 2024/09/17).
Informed consent was obtained from all individuals who participated in the study.
The authors declare that no generative artificial intelligence tools were used to create research data, fabricate sources, or generate substantive scholarly claims in this manuscript.
The descriptive statistics and correlations among the main study variables are presented in Table 1. All analyses were conducted on the full sample of 500 participants (N = 500).
Means, Standard Deviations, and Pearson Correlations among Main Study Variables (N = 500)
| Variable | M | SD | 1 | 2 | 3 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1. Cyberbullying victimization | 6.85 | 0.89 | — | ||
| 2. Self-Esteem | 28.47 | 6.73 | −.40** | — | |
| 3. Depression | 15.68 | 5.52 | .52** | −.55** | — |
Note:
p < .05,
p < .01.
SD = Standard Deviation; correlations described as “moderate” (r ≈ .30–.49) or “moderate to strong” (r ≈ .50–.69) per Cohen, 1988.
Cyberbullying victimization had a mean of 6.85 (SD = 0.89), indicating that, on average, participants experienced moderate exposure to cyberbullying, with relatively low variability across the sample. Self-esteem had a mean of 28.47 (SD = 6.73), reflecting moderate levels of self-esteem among the youths and some variability in perceived social acceptance. Depression had a mean of 15.68 (SD = 5.52), suggesting moderate depressive symptoms with notable variability across participants.
The results of the means, standard deviations, and correlation coefficients are presented in Table 1. Cyberbullying victimization was moderately negatively correlated with self-esteem (r = −.40, p < .01), indicating that youths who experienced higher levels of cyberbullying reported lower self-esteem. Additionally, cyberbullying victimization was moderately to strongly positively correlated with depression (r = .52, p < .01), suggesting that more frequent exposure to cyberbullying was associated with higher depressive symptoms. Self-esteem demonstrated a moderate to strong negative correlation with depression (r = −.55, p < .01), indicating that higher self-esteem was associated with lower levels of depressive symptoms among Nigerian youths.
Hayes PROCESS Macro for SPSS was used to test the study hypotheses. The results are presented Table 2. As shown in Table 2, cyberbullying victimization was positively associated with depression (β = 0.52, SE = 0.08, t = 6.50, p < .01, 95% CI [0.37, 0.67]), thereby supporting hypothesis 1. Self-esteem was negatively associated with depression (β = −0.45, SE = 0.09, t = −5.00, p < .01, 95% CI [−0.63, −0.27]), implying that youths with high self-esteem reported low levels of depression. This result supported hypothesis 2. The interaction term of cyberbullying victimization and self-esteem was significant (β = −0.14, SE = 0.04, t = −3.50, p < .01, 95% CI [−0.22, −0.06]). This implies that self-esteem moderated the relationship between cyberbullying victimization and depression, suggesting the relationship between cyberbullying victimization and depression weakens for youths with high self-esteem. With this result, hypothesis 3 is supported. The result is illustrated in Figure 1.
Hayes PROCESS Analysis on Self-esteem as a Moderator of the Relationship between Cyberbullying victimization and Depression
| Predictor | β | SE | t | p | LLCI | ULCI |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Constant | 12.14 | 1.87 | 6.23 | <.001 | 8.46 | 15.82 |
| Cyberbullying victimization | 0.52 | 0.08 | 6.54 | <.000 | 0.37 | 0.67 |
| Self-esteem | −0.45 | 0.09 | −5.00 | <.001 | −0.63 | −0.27 |
| Cyberbullying victimization × Self-esteem | −0.14 | 0.04 | −3.50 | <.003 | −0.22 | −0.06 |
Note. B = unstandardized regression coefficient; SE = standard error; LLCI = lower limit of the 95% confidence interval; ULCI = upper limit of the 95% confidence interval.
Moderating Effect of Self-Esteem on the Relationship Between Cyberbullying Victimization and Depressive Symptoms.
As shown in Figure 1, self-esteem moderates the relationship between cyberbullying victimization and depressive symptoms. The positive association between cyberbullying victimization and depression is weaker among youths with higher levels of self-esteem compared to those with lower self-esteem, demonstrating the protective (buffering) role of self-esteem.
The present study examined the moderating role of self-esteem in the relationship between cyberbullying victimization and depression among youths in Nigeria, a context where exposure to online harassment is increasingly prevalent. Overall, the findings provide empirical support for both the direct and conditional pathways linking cyberbullying experiences to depressive symptoms, while highlighting the role of sociocultural and structural factors in shaping these relationships within the Nigerian setting.
Consistent with the first research objective, cyberbullying victimization was positively associated with depression, indicating that increased exposure to online harassment corresponds with elevated depressive symptoms among youths. This finding aligns with prior empirical evidence (e.g., Al-Amer et al., 2025; Lee et al., 2025; Nagata et al., 2025; Zhang et al., 2025). However, its significance is further clarified when situated within the Nigerian context. Rapid digitalization in Nigeria has expanded youths’ engagement with social media platforms, often without corresponding advances in digital safety education or regulatory enforcement. Consequently, victims may be exposed to persistent and publicly visible forms of harassment with limited institutional protection.
In addition, structural constraints, such as limited access to youth-friendly mental health services, may intensify the psychological consequences of cyberbullying. Many Nigerian youths lack access to professional psychological support, and available services are often underutilized due to stigma surrounding mental health. As a result, victims may internalize negative online experiences rather than seek help, thereby increasing their vulnerability to depressive symptoms. This structural gap suggests that the association between cyberbullying victimization and depression may be more pronounced in low-resource settings compared to contexts with more robust support systems.
Sociocultural dynamics further provide explanatory insight into this relationship. In many Nigerian communities, social identity is closely tied to communal approval, respect, and reputation. Cyberbullying, which frequently involves public ridicule or social exclusion, may therefore pose a significant threat to an individual’s social standing. This can result in heightened self-consciousness, shame, and perceived rejection, all of which are associated with depressive outcomes. Nevertheless, these findings should be interpreted with caution, as the cross-sectional design precludes causal inference. It is plausible that youths with elevated depressive symptoms may be more likely to perceive or report victimization, underscoring the need for longitudinal research.
The observed moderate level of depression is also noteworthy. This finding is consistent with prior research in Nigerian samples (Olumide et al., 2015; Muhammad et al., 2025) and suggests that cyberbullying may operate alongside other contextual stressors, including academic pressure, economic uncertainty, and family-related challenges. This highlights the importance of adopting a cumulative risk perspective in understanding youth mental health in Nigeria.
Findings further revealed a significant negative association between self-esteem and depression, indicating that youths with higher self-esteem reported lower levels of depressive symptoms. This supports existing literature positioning self-esteem as a critical psychological resource (Gu et al., 2024; Kinariwala et al., 2024) and aligns with prior Nigerian findings (Odulate-Ogunubi et al., 2023). Within the Nigerian context, this relationship may be particularly salient given the strong influence of social comparison and external evaluation on self-worth. Youths with high self-esteem may be better able to resist negative social comparisons and reinterpret adverse experiences in less self-damaging ways.
From a contextual perspective, self-esteem may also be shaped by broader environmental factors, including family support, educational experiences, and socioeconomic conditions. Youths who receive consistent validation and support may develop more stable self-esteem, thereby enhancing their resilience to psychological distress. In contrast, those exposed to chronic stressors or invalidating environments may develop lower self-esteem, increasing their susceptibility to depression. This suggests that self-esteem is not solely an individual attribute but is embedded within broader social and developmental contexts.
More importantly, the findings indicated that self-esteem significantly moderated the relationship between cyberbullying victimization and depression. Specifically, the adverse effect of cyberbullying on depressive symptoms was weaker among youths with higher self-esteem. This finding provides empirical support for Sociometer Theory (Leary & Baumeister, 2000), which conceptualizes self-esteem as an internal gauge of perceived social acceptance. In the Nigerian context, where social belonging is highly valued, individuals with high self-esteem may be less likely to interpret cyberbullying as indicative of their overall social worth, thereby reducing its emotional impact.
However, this moderating effect should be interpreted within a broader ecological framework. Although self-esteem serves as a protective factor, its buffering capacity may be limited in environments characterized by persistent or severe cyberbullying, weak institutional responses, or inadequate social support. Under such conditions, even individuals with relatively high self-esteem may experience psychological distress. This underscores the importance of considering both individual-level and contextual factors in understanding resilience.
Furthermore, the finding that self-esteem attenuates, but does not eliminate, the impact of cyberbullying highlights the need for multi-level interventions. In Nigeria, where formal mental health systems are still developing, strengthening internal resources such as self-esteem may offer a practical and scalable strategy for reducing vulnerability among youths. However, individual-level interventions alone are insufficient. Effective responses to cyberbullying should also include systemic approaches, such as digital literacy education, school-based prevention programs, enforcement of online safety regulations, and improved access to mental health service.
Despite its contributions, this study has several limitations that should be considered when interpreting the findings. First, the cross-sectional design precludes causal inferences. Although the results indicate significant associations among cyberbullying victimization, self-esteem, and depression, the directionality of these relationships cannot be definitively established. It is possible, for instance, that depressive symptoms influence perceptions of victimization or self-esteem. Future research employing longitudinal or experimental designs would provide stronger evidence regarding causal pathways and temporal dynamics.
Second, and more importantly, the use of a convenience sampling technique introduces notable limitations related to sample representativeness and potential bias. Participants were recruited from an accessible subgroup of youths, which may not adequately reflect the broader population of Nigerian youths in terms of socioeconomic background, educational status, digital access, or exposure to cyberbullying. This approach increases the likelihood of selection bias, as individuals who are more accessible, willing, or available to participate may systematically differ from those who are not included. For example, youths who are more engaged with digital platforms or more open to discussing psychological experiences may have been overrepresented, potentially inflating observed relationships.
In addition, the moderate sample size further constrains the statistical generalizability of the findings, particularly in a country as demographically and culturally diverse as Nigeria. The combination of non-probability sampling and limited sample diversity restricts the external validity of the study and limits the extent to which the findings can be generalized to all Nigerian youths. Accordingly, the results should be interpreted as indicative rather than definitive. Future studies should employ probability-based sampling techniques (e.g., stratified or cluster sampling) and recruit larger, more heterogeneous samples to improve representativeness and strengthen the generalizability of findings.
Third, data were collected using self-report measures, which may introduce common method variance and social desirability bias. Participants may have underreported or overreported their experiences due to recall errors or the desire to present themselves in a socially acceptable manner. This concern is particularly relevant in the Nigerian context, where stigma surrounding mental health and victimization may influence disclosure patterns. Incorporating multi-method approaches, such as peer reports, teacher assessments, or digital behavioral data, would enhance the robustness of future research.
Fourth, the sample was drawn from a single geographical region (Southwest Nigeria), which limits the ability to capture regional variations in cultural norms, internet usage patterns, and access to psychosocial resources across the country. Nigeria is characterized by substantial sociocultural, economic, and infrastructural diversity, all of which may shape both exposures to cyberbullying and its psychological consequences. Future research should therefore include participants from multiple regions to enhance the ecological validity and national representativeness of findings.
Fifth, the study focused exclusively on self-esteem as a moderating variable, thereby overlooking other potentially relevant individual and contextual factors. Variables such as social support, resilience, coping strategies, and personality traits may also influence how youths respond to cyberbullying experiences. Future research should adopt more comprehensive models that incorporate multiple protective and risk factors to provide a more nuanced understanding of these relationships.
Finally, the study examined only depressive symptoms as an outcome variable. Although depression is a critical indicator of mental health distress, cyberbullying victimization may also be associated with other mental health outcomes, including anxiety, sleep disturbances, and social dysfunction. Expanding the range of outcome variables in future stud
While cyberbullying is a pressing global mental health concern, this study highlights the unique experiences and contextual factors influencing Nigerian youths, including social norms, internet use patterns, and limited mental health resources. By focusing on Nigerian youths, the study responds to global calls for more inclusive mental health research that reflects the lived realities of young people in developing countries, thereby improving the geographical balance of the literature. The study also advances global mental health research by identifying a modifiable psychological resource, such as self-esteem, as a protective factor. Rather than paying attention solely to the risk of cyberbullying victimization, this study adopts a resilient-oriented perspective that aligns with contemporary global mental health priorities, suggesting prevention, psychosocial strengths, and low-cost interventions that can be scaled in resource-constrained settings.
This study has important implications for mental health practice, policy, and prevention, particularly in contexts where youth digital exposure is increasing faster than access to mental health services. The findings highlight that self-esteem can buffer the adverse effects of cyberbullying victimization on depressive symptoms, suggesting that interventions aimed at enhancing self-esteem may be beneficial not only in Nigeria but also in other international settings.
In the Nigerian context, where formal mental health resources are limited, stakeholders, including government agencies, school administrators, and community organizations, should develop anti-cyberbullying policies with clear rules, reporting mechanisms, and penalties, and integrate these into student curricula and orientation programs. Safe reporting systems, counseling centers, and online support platforms can provide psychosocial support to victims.
Additionally, low-cost, culturally adaptable interventions targeting self-esteem, such as peer support networks and structured self-esteem training, could mitigate the mental health impacts of cyberbullying. Early identification strategies, including self-esteem assessments within school counseling programs, may facilitate timely support and referrals. By addressing both external factors (cyberbullying exposure) and internal protective factors (self-esteem), these measures could reduce the prolonged negative effects of online victimization among youths, offering lessons relevant for other low- and middle-income countries and digitally connected youth populations worldwide.
This study expands knowledge on the psychological effects of online victimization by examining the moderating role of self-esteem in the relationship between cyberbullying victimization and depression in a sample of Nigerian youths. Findings of the study reveal that individuals who experience cyberbullying victimization reported high depression. However, self-esteem serves as a protective factor by mitigating the negative effect of cyberbullying victimization on depression. These findings suggest the need for government, school authorities, and other relevant stakeholders to established and enforce anti-cyberbullying victimization policies to discourage cyberbullying victimization and also organize intervention programs (e.g., seminars and workshops) that would enhance the self-esteem of youths.