Canada, the United Kingdom and the United States of America receive millions of immigrants annually. Statistically, the government of Canada is aiming to welcome 367,750 individuals as new temporary workers. 305,900 individuals will be arriving in Canada as new students (Government of Canada, 2025). In 2024, a total of 818,500 individuals migrated to the USA (Citizenship Resource Center, 2025). In the case of the United Kingdom, a total of 517,000 individuals migrated to the UK in 2024 (BBC News, 2025). This indicates that immigration is one of the hallmark features of society in Canada, United Kingdom and United States of America.
Suicide related research is an extensive area for researchers; however, immigrants as a special population for assessment has been ignored so far. There is available evidence, but it is not extensively researched. Forte and colleagues' states that young immigrants are increased risk of suicidality i.e., ranging from ideation and self-harm to death by suicide (Forte et al., 2018). Mental health among immigrants is an issue of importance for countries of destination (Ratkowska et al., 2013). Physical and mental health of immigrants is a significant burden on healthcare systems of the countries of destination, but at the same time social welfare and individual rights are of utmost importance. The process of migration impacts physical and mental health of individuals. The status of being an immigrant has social, cultural, economic and psychological repercussions for an individual (Bursztein Lipsicas & Henrik Mäkinen, 2010).
Haase et al. (2023) asserts that there is lack of focus on prevalence of suicidal ideation among immigrants of different types i.e., refugees, asylum seekers, immigrants for job purpose and settling in a particular country. However, a recent trend in research suicidality among immigrants is evident. Ratkowska et al. (2013) theorized that globalization is making migration an easy phenomenon and certain states are attracting individuals across the globe due to their socio-economic conditions. Migration is something which changes the life of an individual considering daily life, social life, religious life and other aspects of cultural life. The change is associated with psychological health of an individual which is very important in suicide related studies.
Migration to developed countries is a hallmark process in modern society (Macionis, 2014). Highlighting different social problems in developed countries relevant to migration is pivotal. In this regard, mental health is of key consideration. Suicidality is a significant aspect of mental health. This study is important in two ways; first, understanding suicidality among immigrants in the country of destination; and second, understanding the patterns of suicidality among immigrants considering country of origin. This study aims to understand patterns of suicidality among immigrants by considering their experiences in Canada, United Kingdom and United States of America.
This study adds to the knowledge as migration is a global phenomenon and mental health of immigrants is one of the core areas for researchers in sociology, psychology, suicidology and policy making. An accumulation of knowledge from the existing body of knowledge provides a descriptive picture of suicidality among immigrants in Canada, United Kingdom and United States of America which a) highlights the significance of the issue, b) suggests areas for the urgency for further research on immigrants and suicidality, c) provide theoretical implications
The primary objective of this study is understanding the underlying factors regarding suicidality among immigrants in Canada, United Kingdom and United States of America. For this purpose, an existing body of evidence has been considered. Research questions are devised to further specify the objective of the study which are:
What are the patterns of suicidality among immigrants considering country of origin and country of destination?
What are specific attributes of immigration leading to suicidality among immigrants?
How can protective measures be more effective to prevent suicidality among immigrants?
Keyword search strategy was employed. Databases for research included Sociological Abstracts, CINAHIL and EBSCO host, Medline and EMBASE. Keywords included a) Suicidality AND Immigrants AND Canada, b) Suicidality AND Immigrants AND United Kingdom, c) Suicidality AND Immigrants AND USA. A total of 344 results were obtained whereby 197 results were duplicated across Sociological Abstracts, CINAHIL and EBSCO host, Medline and EMBASE.
A two-stage screening process was applied for refining and selecting studies which were most relevant to migration and suicidality in Canada, UK and USA. Initially, two reviewers read the titles and abstracts of the studies and then the full texts independently. The reviewers studied a total of 32 papers and sampled 11 studies. The reviewers were guided to sample a minimum of 3 studies for each country.
Braun and Clark (2019) devised a reflexive thematic analysis technique for qualitative research designs. This technique is very useful in analyzing information collected in six steps. The steps included familiarization with data by reading the sampled research papers. The important information in the papers was coded and first order codes were extracted. Second order concepts were extracted in the next step which provides hints for themes to the researcher. Finally, the themes are explained considering sampled research papers and further research is juxtaposed with the findings in the discussion section.
Studies indicate that new immigrants in the US experience increased vulnerability to suicide due to various stressors like language barriers, cultural adjustment, and limited access to mental health services (Spataro et al., 2024). Khan et al. (2024) explored Canada and found that immigrants are vulnerable to suicidality. Saunders et al. (2019) specified that refugees are types of immigrants with 2-fold higher risk of suicidality when compared to levels of suicidality among other immigrants' groups in Canada i.e., immigrants for business purposes. This evidence is further validated by Hansson et al. (2012) through systematic review. This review showed that refugees are at greater risk of suicide attempt as compared to Canadian population. Age and origin of migration impacts the ratio of mental illness among immigrants. Özen-Dursun et al. (2023) found that there is difference in the patterns of suicide among UK based populations and immigrants specifically self-harming behaviors which can be fatal.
Hansson et al. (2012) stated that origin of migration impacts the extent and nature of mental illness among immigrants which is a significant indicator for suicidality. For example, Eylem et al., (2021) expounded that there three major indicators of suicidality among Turkish young migrants in the UK a) depression, b) worrying, c) hopelessness. Further, by studying 5180 participants through Collaborative Psychiatric Epidemiological Surveys, Borges et al. (2012) found that suicidality is high among Asian and Hispanic immigrants in the USA. Tham et al. (2023) asserts that migrants from African region with mental illness at the time of migration have highest rates of suicide in the UK. Aran et al. (2023) states that refugees from Bhutan in the USA experienced social disconnection and showed exacerbated levels of stress with higher suicidality index.
The sampled papers showed that there are numerous factors which contribute to higher suicidality among immigrants at the country of destination that are illustrated in form of sub-themes.
Kim (2021) asserts that exposure to US culture is problematic for Asian migrants. For migrants who are not fluent in English, it becomes difficult to interact in a meaningful manner. This creates an internal sense of isolation and even apprehension to interact in a manner that resembles culture of origin. This causes stress which is a precursor for suicidality among Asian immigrants in the USA. Eylem et al (2021) asserts that language is important for social support whereas in the United Kingdom, immigrants find it difficult to seek support with the help of language.
The sample studies showed that left behind families have a significant link with worries and stress among employees. Katsampa et al. (2025) asserts that perceived responsibility is a key indicator of burden on mental health among immigrants in the United Kingdom. This makes immigrants vulnerable and perceived burdensome which is a key indicator for suicidality.
Khan et al. (2024) are of the opinion that separation from families is a difficult experience for immigrants in Canada. Katsampa et al. (2025) conducted their qualitative study in the United Kingdom and found that migrants to the United Kingdom suffer from significant emotional burden of separation from families.
Eylem et al. (2021) mentioned acculturation is an important dimension of suicidality among Turkish migrants in the UK. For example, religious differences lead to internal sense of stress that is responsible for mental illnesses among Muslim populations which immigrate to the United Kingdom. Eylem and colleagues also explored differences in food habits, dressing and living patterns as contributing factors to stress induced suicidality.
Homelessness has been conceptualized in multifaceted manner in the sampled research papers. First, individuals who are recent immigrants live alone or experience loneliness due to left behind families. Secondly, the majority of immigrants face accommodation related issues. Both situations are linked with stress, which is a major indicator of suicidality. Khan et al. (2024) presents the Canadian context and asserts that for immigrants, experiencing homelessness is inevitable in Canada and is the most difficult experience of life. Individuals consider or sense it as a loss of social position. In addition, social disconnection and lack of accommodation is one of the leading stressors for new immigrants in Canada, USA and UK (Aran et al., 2023). Aran and colleagues explored that
Support from friends is integral in preventing suicidality among immigrants. Kim (2021) asserts that friends at the country of destination reduces the risk of suicidality among immigrants. Kim's work specifically identified that support from friends is highly effective among immigrant women considering the protective factor from suicidality. Most importantly, it is the perception of support which can prevent stress induced suicidality during the process of assimilation.
Eylem et al (2021) explored the role of local Muslim communities to provide support with help of meaningfulness and religious practices to protect new migrants in the United Kingdom from mental illnesses and suicidality. Further, Tham et al. (2023) focused on the role of the healthcare system in preventing suicidality among immigrants to the UK with mental illnesses. Özen-Dursun et al. (2023) suggested providing culturally sensitive interventions to immigrants for protection which includes religion and cultural support. Most importantly, Eylem et al. (2021) explained that E-health services can be utilized effectively to prevent suicidality.
Sampled Studies with Key Findings
| Authors | Study Design | Findings and Key theme extracted |
|---|---|---|
| Canada | ||
| Khan et al. (2024) | Thematic review | Immigrants experience numerous socio-economic dilemmas leading to higher prevalence of suicidality |
| Saunders et al. (2019) | Population-based cohort study (N= 9,055,079) | Refugees are types of immigrants with higher prevalence of suicidality. |
| Hansson et al. (2012) | Systematic review (17 papers were sampled) | Refugees are at greater risk of suicide attempt as compared to Canadian population. Age and origin of migration impacts the ratio of mental illness among immigrants. |
| United Kingdom | ||
| Özen-Dursun et al. (2023) | Systematic review of UK based studies | There is difference in the patterns of suicide among UK based populations and immigrants specifically self-harming behaviors which can be fatal. |
| Eylem et al. (2021) | Intervention based experimental design (n=85) | Among Turkish migrants, Muslim community can play a protective role in preventing suicidality. E-health services can be utilized effectively to prevent suicidality. |
| Tham et al., (2023) | a national clinical survey | Migrants in the UK are at increased risk of suicidality; however, migrants with psychiatric problems have the highest vulnerability immediately after migration |
| Katsampa et al. (2025) | Interpretive phenomenological approach | Immigrants experience intense stress in the UK due to left behind families. Worries and separation impacts new immigrants in a negative manner. |
| United States of America | ||
| Borges et al. (2012) | 5180 participants Collaborative Psychiatric Epidemiological Surveys | After controlling psychiatric disorders, suicidality is high among Asian and Hispanic immigrants in the USA. |
| Kim (2021). | Exposure to U.S. culture leads to an internal sense of stress among immigrants. New immigrants experience a lack of perceived support which is associated with increased risk of suicidality. | |
| Spataro et al., 2024). | new immigrants in the US experience increased vulnerability to suicide due to various stressors like language barriers, cultural adjustment, and limited access to mental health services. | |
| Systematic study considering multiple countries including Canada, UK and USA | ||
| Aran et al. (2023) | Systematic review (PRISMA based) | Experiences of immigrants in high income countries are unique and quantitatively linked with suicidality |
Braun and Clark (2019) Reflexive Thematic Coding
| First order codes | Second degree concepts | Overreaching themes |
|---|---|---|
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| Theme One: evidence of prevalence of higher suicidality among immigrants |
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| Theme Two: suicidal behavior and specific countries of origin |
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| Theme Three: Factors Contributing to Higher Suicidality among Immigrants at the Country of Destination |
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Immigrants are at an increase in suicides in Canada, the United Kingdom and United States of America. Immigrants include individuals who come to Canada, United Kingdom and United States of America as refugees, for educational purposes and employment (Spataro et al., 2024; Khan et al., 2024; Saunders et al., 2019; Hansson et al., 2012). In addition to the country of destination, the country of origin is also illustrated, for example, Turkish young migrants to the United Kingdom experience worry, depressive symptoms and hopelessness. Asian and Hispanic immigrants in the USA are at increased risk of suicidality. Refugees from Bhutan also showed exacerbated suicidality indicators in the USA (Hansson et al., 2012; Eylem et al., 2023; Borges et al., 2012., Aran et al., 2023).
There are factors contributing to higher suicidality among immigrants at the country of destination. There are three main domains extracted from the sampled papers a) language barriers, b) worrying about family back home, c) separation from family and d) assimilation and acculturation (Kim, 2021; Eylem et al., 2021; Khan et al., 2024; Katsampa et al., 2025). These factors contribute to developing an internal sense of stress that is responsible for mental illnesses among immigrants in Canada, UK and USA.
Experiencing living alone and accommodation related issues have been found as significant regarding increased suicidality among immigrants. This situation and experience of immigrants is conceptualized as homelessness dilemma. Social disconnection and lack of accommodation is one of the leading stressors for new immigrants in Canada, USA and UK (Aran et al., 2023; Khan et al., 2024).
Social support and protective factors are extracted as key findings. Communities of immigrants at the countries of destination i.e., Canada, UK and USA play an integral role in providing social, economic and mental support. Many of the immigrants are from Muslim regions as local Muslim communities have found to have played an effective role in prevention of suicidality among new immigrants. The healthcare system is also important in connection to protection from stress induced suicidality among immigrants. E-health services is also an option to be utilized effectively (Kim, 2021; Eylem et al., 2021; Tham et al., 2023). Culturally sensitive interventions can also prove very effective as a protective mechanism (Özen-Dursun et al., 2023).
This study provides multi-faceted theoretical and perspective-based contributions. It is evident that there are certain structures at the country of destination such as Canada, United Kingdom and United States of America which are important functionally to prevent suicidality among immigrants such as healthcare structure and role of local communities. At the same time, language-related dimensions, cultural aspects, i.e., assimilation and acculturation are also evident, which indicates the importance of symbolic interactionist perspective. This study theoretically contributes to understanding of suicidality among immigrants at the country of destination from structural-functional and symbolic interactionist perspective.
This study is a multicounty thematic review to understand patterns of suicidality among immigrants by considering their experiences in Canada, United Kingdom and United States of America. Migration is a global phenomenon and mental health of immigrants is one of the core areas for researchers in sociology, psychology, suicidology and policy making.
Immigrants are at an increase in suicidality in Canada, United Kingdom and United States of America. Immigrants include individuals who come to Canada, United Kingdom and United States of America as refugees, for educational purposes and employment. There are factors contributing to higher suicidality among immigrants at the country of destination. There are four major domains extracted from the sampled papers a) language barriers, b) worrying about family back home, c) separation from family and d) assimilation and acculturation. Experiencing living alone and accommodation related issues have been found as significant regarding increased suicidality among immigrants (Khan et al., 2024). Social support and protective factors are extracted as key findings. Communities of immigrants at the countries of destination i.e., Canada, UK and USA play an integral role in providing social, economic and mental support. Healthcare system specifically e-health is also important in connection to protection from stress induced suicidality among immigrants
Suicidality is a highly subjective phenomenon whereby there is a lack of studies on suicidality considering research designs such as grounded and interpretive phenomenological inquiries. A major portion of available research on immigration and suicidality is extracted from statistical perspective such as quantitative research and cause effect in analysis. Further, meta-analysis is also suggested to provide a positivist perspective on suicidality among immigrants in developed countries with higher statistics of receiving immigrants. A recent trend which is E-health services can be researched further regarding its role and effectiveness to prevent suicidality among immigrants through experimental studies.