Map 1
The Central Asian region discussed in this article.
(Note: Lalma is located in Hadda, but its exact position is unclear, so it is not plotted on this map.)
Table 1
Sites discussed in this article.
| NO. | SITES | ABBR | ESTIMATED PERIOD OF ACTIVITY (REFERENCES) | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Northwest Pakistan | 1 | Taxila | Dharmarajika | DR | 3rd-1st centuries BC to 4th-5th centuries AD (Marshall 1951) |
| 2 | Kalawan | KW | 1st century to 5th century AD (Marshall 1951) | ||
| 3 | Jaulian | JL | 2nd century to 5th century AD (Marshall 1951) | ||
| 4 | Pippala | PP | 1st century to 5th-6th centuries AD (Marshall 1951) | ||
| 5 | Mohra Moradu | MM | 2nd century to 5th century AD? (Marshall 1951) | ||
| 6 | Bahmala | BM | 4th century to 5th century AD? (Marshall 1951) | ||
| 7 | Ranigat | RG | late 1st-late 2nd centuries to 7th–8th centuries AD? (Nishikawa 1999) | ||
| 8 | Mehasanda | MS | mid-2nd–3rd centuries to mid-4th-mid-5th centuries AD (Mizuno 1969) | ||
| 9 | Thareli | TH | 2nd century AD to 5th century AD (Mizuno & Higuchi 1978) | ||
| Southern Hindu Kush | 10 | Hadda | Tapa Kalan | TK | Unclear parallel to Taxila? (2nd century AD to 4th century AD?) (Vanleene 2018) |
| 11 | Tapa-i Kafariha | KF | |||
| 12 | Bagh Gai | BG | |||
| 13 | Lalma | LM | mid-3rd century AD to mid-5th century AD (Mizuno 1968) | ||
| 14 | Tapa Shotor | TST | 2nd century to 4th century AD* (Kuwayama 1973, Tarzi 2005) | ||
| 15 | Tepe Narenj | TN | late 5th century to 10th-11th centuries AD (Paiman & Alram 2012) | ||
| 16 | Mes Aynak | Kafiriat Tepe | MAK | 2nd century to 9th century AD (Engel 2013) Note: Sculptures date back to the 5th century at the earliest. (Klimburg-Salter 2018: 227–228). | |
| Gol Hamid | MAGH | ||||
| 17 | Tapa Sardar | TS | 3rd century to 8th-9th centuries AD Note: Examples recorded in situ are attested from the early 6th to 7th century layers onward. (Verardi & Paparatti 2005) | ||
| 18 | Fondukistan | FD | late 7th century AD to? (Novotny 2017) | ||
| Northern Amu Darya | 19 | Kara Tepa | North Hill | KT-NH | 2nd century to 5th century~? AD (Fussman 2011) |
| West Hill | KT-WH | mid-1st-late-1st to around 4th century~? AD (Pidaev 2020) | |||
| South Hill | KT-SH | late-1st-mid-2nd centuries to around 4th century~? AD (Pidaev 2020) | |||
| 20 | Dalvarzin Tepa (DT-25) | DT-25 | 3rd century to mid-4th century AD (SUSRRC 2012) | ||
| 21 | Ajina Tepa | AT | late 7th century to 8th century AD (Litvinskij 1971) | ||
[i] Dates that have only been estimated and not confirmed in the literature are marked with an asterisk (*).
Figure 1
Maps of main Buddhist sites in northwest Pakistan and the location of in situ examples.
Based on the following sources, traced and created by the author. Jaulian, Mohra Moradu: Based on Marshall 1951, Mekhasanda: Mizuno 1969, Thareli D: Mizuno & Higuchi 1978, Ranigat: Nishikawa 1999.
Figure 2
Plans of main Buddhist sites in Hadda in the Southern Hindu Kush and the location of in situ examples.
Based on the following sources, traced and created by the author. Tapa Kalan, Tapa-i Kafariha, Bagh Gai: Barthoux 1933, Tapa Shotor: Tarzi 2005.
Figure 3
Plans of main Buddhist sites in the Southern Hindu Kush (outside Hadda) and the location of in situ examples.
Based on the following sources, traced and created by the author. Tepe Narenj: Paiman & Alram 2013, Fondukistan: Novotny 2017: Fig.1, Tapa Sardar all: Taddei & Verardi 1985: Fig.1, Tapa Sardar-Phase 4: Verardi & Paparatti 2005: Fig. 22.
Figure 4
Plans of main Buddhist sites in the Northern Amu Darya and the location of in situ examples.
Based on the following sources, traced and created by the author. Kara Tepa-North Hill: Fussman 2011, Kara Tepa-West Hill: Pidaev 2002: Fig.5, Kara Tepa South-Hill: Stavisky 1996: Fig.3, Dalvarzin Tepa: SUSRARG 1997: Fig.1, Ajina Tepa: Litvinskij & Zeimal 2004: Fig.3
Table 2
Patterns in architectural and sculptural materials in northwest Pakistan.
| ARCHITECTURE | SCULPTURES | EXAMPLES | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| SURFACE COATING | FINISH COATING | INNER LAYER | OUTER LAYER | |||
| White plaster | White plaster | Stupa | 【Larger】DR: J1, K1; PP: Stupa K; MM: Main stupa; MS: Main stupa; TH: D stupa 10; (RG: West court stupa 301?) | Outdoors | ||
| 【Smaller】PP: Cell 31; JL: Small stupas; MS: Stupas 8, 9, 20; TH: D stupa 2; (RG: East court stupa 122, stupas 163–172) | ||||||
| White plaster | Earth | White plaster | Stupa | 【Larger】JL: Main stupa | ||
| Interior space | DR: N18 | Indoors | ||||
[i] Items in parentheses: Not described in the text, but estimated from photos.
Table 3
Patterns in architectural and sculptural materials in the southern Hindu Kush.
| ARCHITECTURE | SCULPTURES | EXAMPLES | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| SURFACE COATING | FINISH COATING | INNER LAYER | OUTER LAYER | |||
| White plaster | White plaster | Stupa | 【Larger】TST: Main stupa; LM: Main stupa | Outdoors | ||
| 【Smaller】TST: Stupa 7 (11, 12, 14, 19) ; LM: Stupas 3–5 | ||||||
| Earth | Earth | Stupa | 【Smaller】TS: nos.4, 7, 8, 10 | Roofed | ||
| Wall niche | TN: Zone XIV (no.15) | Indoors | ||||
| Interior space | TST: D, F, J, K, G, H; TN: Chapel 6, Zone XIV (nos2, 9), TS: Vihara 17, Ch23 | |||||
| Earth + white plaster | Earth | Interior space | MAG: West Chapel | |||
| Earth | Earth | White plaster | Interior space | TN: Chapel1, 3, 4, 8*, Zone XIV (nos.1*, 3, 4*, 5*, 7*, 8, 10, 12, 13, 16) | ||
[i] Items in parentheses: Not described in the text, but estimated from photos.
*: A red earth coating was added later.
Table 4
Cases found in surviving in situ records concerning northwest Pakistan.
| CATEGORIES | DHARMA-RAJIKA | KALAWAN | JAULIAN | PIPPA-LA | MOHRA MORADU | BHAMALA | RANIGAT | MEHA-SANDA | THARELI | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Outdoors | Stupa | Larger | P1, Stupa1, 2 J1, K1 | – | Main stupa | Stupa K | Main stupa | Main stupa | West-south court: stupa 301 | Main stupa | D stupa 10 |
| Smaller | – | – | Stupa D4, 5, A2, 11, 15, 16, 20 (D1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10) * | Cell 31 stupa | – | A1, 15 | East court: stupa 122, 136, 163, 164, 165, 168, 172West court: 217 | Stupas 8, 9, 20 | D stupas 2, 4 | ||
| Building exterior | R1? | – | C32, 34 | – | 【Roofed】 Vihara 1, 2, 5, 7, 11, 12, 23 | Stupa court gate | East court: R.116 | Chapels 21, 22, 46 | D: 7–8, 9, 24, 60, C: 100–ii | ||
| Indoors | Stupa | – | – | – | – | Cell 9 stupa | – | – | – | – | |
| Interior space | N17, N18 | B20 | E1, 2, C19, 33 | – | – | – | – | – | – | ||
| Wall niche | – | – | S1, 2, 3, 5 | – | Monastery entrance, Portico, Cells 4, 21, 22, 26 | – | – | – | D14’ | ||
| References | Marshall 1951 | Marshall 1951 | Marshall 1951 | Marshall 1951 | Marshall 1951 | Marshall 1951 | Nishikawa 1999 | Mizuno 1969 | Mizuno, Higuchi 1978 | ||
[i] *: The cases where sculptures appear to remain from photographs, but the details are unclear.
Table 5
Cases found in surviving in situ records concerning the northern Amu Darya.
| CATEGORIES | KARA TEPA | DALVARZIN TEPA-DT25 | AJINA TEPA | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Outdoors | Stupa | Larger | – | – | – |
| Smaller | – | – | – | ||
| Building exterior | – | 【Roofed】Room 3 south, east, north wall | – | ||
| Indoors | Interior space | SH-C: chapel NH: Center room on the north side of the main stupa | – | XXII | |
| Wall niche | SH-C: entrance to cave no.1, -D: courtyard, -E: courtyard south wall WH-A: East wall of the east side room, Central niche of the west wall of the courtyard | – | XXII niche No. 1, XXV niche No. 1 | ||
| References | Stavisky 1996, Pidaev 2002 Pidaev, Kato 2007 | SUSRARG 1997 | Litvinskij 1971, Litvinskij & Zejmal 2004 | ||
Table 6
Cases found in surviving in situ records concerning the southern Hindu Kush.
| CATEGORIES | HADDA | TEPE NARENJ | MES AYNAK | TAPA SARDAR | FONDU-KISTAN | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| TAPA KALAN | TAPA-I KAFARIHA | BAGH GAI | LALMA | TAPA SHOTOR | KAFIRIAT TEPE | GOL HAMID | ||||||
| Outdoors | Stupa | Larger | TK141 | K1, 35 | B12, 70 | Main stupa | Main stupa | – | – | – | – | – |
| Smaller | TK4, 25–33, 35, 36, 43–45, 46, 53–55, 56, 60, 62, 65, 67, 69, 70, 71, 73, 78, 84, 86, 88, 89, 92, 95, 97, 98, 100, 102, 106, 110, 116-a, 138, 139 | K8, 10, 11, 15, 18, 36, 37, 42, 43, 44 | B4, 6, 7, 18, 19, 21b, 23, 31, 58, 66–67, 76–77 | Stupas 3, 4, 5 | Stupas 7, 11, 12, 14, 19 | – | – | – | Stupa 20 【Roofed】 nos.4, 7, 8, 10 | – | ||
| Building exterior | F, G, I, J, L, M | K38 | – | – | – | – | – | – | no.18 | – | ||
| Other | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 【Roofed】Throne6, 9 | – | ||
| Indoors | Stupa | TK21, 23, 118, 121, 124–1, 124–2, 133 | 33, 45, 46 | 29, 51, 52 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | |
| Interior space | TK21, 23, 118, 119, 120, Cellure 121, 122, 123, TK124, 124 bis 128–129, 132, 133 | K19, 23, 25, 27, 28, 29, 30, 32, 33, 45, 49 | B30-a, 56 (b, f, h, l, m/n) | – | Chapels D, F, J, K, G, H (Niche XII) | Chapel 1, 3, 4, 6, 8, Zone XIV (nos. 1–14, 16) | Stupa court: Plinth Monastery: South chapel, North chapel, Central room | West chapel, North chapel Monastery chapel | nos.14, 15, Room 36 (nos.44–46), 75 (nos.84, 85, 108), Chapel 17, 23, 37, 50, 63, 100, 163 | – | ||
| Wall niche | TK6, 8, 10, 11, 13, 16, 18, 23, 142, 144, 145 | – | B29, 30-b, 56 (c, d, g, i, p, q, r, s, t, u, x) | – | Niches C, B, E- XXIV-b, -XXIV-k, V1, V2, V3 | Zone XIV no.15 | – | – | Niche 76 | Niches C, D, E | ||
| References | Barthoux 1933 | Barthoux 1933 | Barthoux 1933 | Mizuno 1968 | Mustamandi 1968a, b, 1969, Kuwayama 1973, Tarzi 1976, 2005 | Paiman 2005, 2006, 2008, 2010, Paiman & Alram 2013 | Kabul National Museum 2012 | Paiman 2010, Kabul National Museum 2012 | Taddei 1968, Taddei & Verardi 1972, 1978, 1985, Verardi & Paparatti 2005 | Novotny 2017 | ||