Figure 1
Research model and hypotheses.
Table 1
Socio-Professional Characteristics of the Sample and Subsamples by Countries.
| SPAIN (n = 450) | HISPANIC AMERICAN COUNTRIES (n = 105) | EUROPEAN UNION COUNTRIES (n = 22) | TOTAL (n= 577) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| CATEGORICAL VARIABLES | n | % | n | % | n | % | n | % |
| Gender | ||||||||
| Male | 117 | 26 | 33 | 31,4 | 7 | 31,8 | 157 | 27,2 |
| Female | 333 | 74 | 72 | 68,6 | 15 | 68,2 | 420 | 72,8 |
| Age | ||||||||
| 18 to 29 years | 93 | 20,7 | 50 | 47,6 | 5 | 22,7 | 148 | 25,6 |
| 30 to 39 years | 106 | 23,6 | 22 | 21 | 7 | 31,8 | 135 | 23,4 |
| 40 to 49 years | 133 | 29,6 | 16 | 15,2 | 5 | 22,7 | 154 | 26,7 |
| 50 to 59 years | 93 | 20,7 | 11 | 10,5 | 5 | 22,7 | 109 | 18,9 |
| 60 to 65 years | 20 | 4,4 | 4 | 3,8 | 0 | 0 | 24 | 4,2 |
| More than 65 years | 5 | 1,1 | 2 | 1,9 | 0 | 0 | 7 | 1,2 |
| Cohabitation Status | ||||||||
| With Relatives (without Partner or Children) | 68 | 15,1 | 34 | 32,4 | 2 | 9,1 | 104 | 18 |
| With Partner | 136 | 30,2 | 30 | 28,6 | 11 | 50 | 177 | 30,7 |
| With Partner and Children | 131 | 29,1 | 11 | 10,5 | 4 | 18,2 | 146 | 25,3 |
| With Partner, Children, and/or Other Relatives | 14 | 3,1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 14 | 2,4 |
| Only with Children | 31 | 6,9 | 5 | 4,8 | 1 | 4,5 | 37 | 6,4 |
| Alone | 70 | 15,6 | 25 | 23,8 | 4 | 18,2 | 99 | 17,2 |
| Missing Values | 0 | 0,2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0,2 |
| Children | ||||||||
| 1 Child | 78 | 17,3 | 15 | 14,3 | 4 | 18,2 | 97 | 16,8 |
| 2 Children | 94 | 20,9 | 6 | 5,7 | 1 | 4,5 | 101 | 17,5 |
| 3 Children | 19 | 4,2 | 5 | 4,8 | 2 | 9,1 | 26 | 4,5 |
| More tan 3 Children | 3 | 0,7 | 2 | 1,9 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 0,9 |
| Without Children | 256 | 56,9 | 77 | 73,3 | 15 | 6,2 | 348 | 60,3 |
| Educational Level | ||||||||
| No Formal Education | 1 | 0,2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0,3 |
| Certificate of Schooling | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 4,5 | 1 | 0,2 |
| Elementary/Secondary Education | 5 | 1,1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 1 |
| High School | 24 | 5,3 | 14 | 13,3 | 2 | 9,1 | 40 | 6,9 |
| Bachelor’s/Degree | 128 | 28,4 | 61 | 58,1 | 5 | 22,7 | 194 | 33,6 |
| Master’s Degree | 256 | 56,9 | 20 | 19 | 10 | 45,5 | 286 | 49,6 |
| Doctorate | 36 | 8 | 8 | 7,6 | 4 | 18,2 | 48 | 8,3 |
| Current Profession/Occupation | ||||||||
| Administration and Finance | 45 | 10 | 11 | 10,5 | 3 | 13,6 | 59 | 10,2 |
| Research, Development, and Innovation | 36 | 8 | 13 | 12,4 | 1 | 4,5 | 50 | 8,7 |
| Educational, Cultural, and Arts Sector | 76 | 16,9 | 11 | 10,5 | 4 | 18,2 | 91 | 15,8 |
| Healthcare Sector | 141 | 31,3 | 41 | 39 | 8 | 36,4 | 190 | 32,9 |
| Secondary Sector: Industrial, Energy, Mining, and Construction | 17 | 3,8 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 4,5 | 19 | 3,3 |
| Social Sector, NGOs, or Non-Profit | 49 | 10,9 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 9,1 | 52 | 9 |
| Transportation, Communications, Commercial, Tourism, or Hospitality | 29 | 6,4 | 4 | 3,8 | 0 | 0 | 33 | 5,7 |
| Others | 57 | 12,7 | 23 | 21,9 | 3 | 13,6 | 83 | 14,4 |
| Type of Contract or Employment Sector | ||||||||
| Internships | 15 | 3,3 | 5 | 4,8 | 0 | 0 | 20 | 3,5 |
| Entrepreneur | 16 | 3,6 | 3 | 2,9 | 0 | 0 | 19 | 3,3 |
| Public Servant | 32 | 7,1 | 2 | 1,9 | 0 | 0 | 34 | 5,9 |
| Self-Employed Worker | 115 | 25,6 | 45 | 42,9 | 2 | 9,1 | 162 | 28,1 |
| Temporary Worker | 54 | 12 | 7 | 6,7 | 7 | 31,8 | 68 | 11,8 |
| Permanent Worker | 191 | 42,4 | 30 | 28,6 | 12 | 54,5 | 233 | 40,4 |
| Others | 27 | 6 | 13 | 12,4 | 1 | 4,5 | 41 | 7 |
| Do you telecommute? | ||||||||
| Yes | 312 | 69,3 | 82 | 78,1 | 13 | 59,1 | 407 | 70,5 |
| No | 138 | 30,7 | 23 | 21,9 | 9 | 40,9 | 170 | 29,5 |
| If you telecommute, how many days per week? | ||||||||
| 1 or 2 days | 114 | 25,3 | 15 | 14,3 | 2 | 9,1 | 131 | 22,7 |
| 3 or 4 days | 68 | 15,1 | 27 | 25,7 | 4 | 18,2 | 99 | 17,2 |
| 5 or more days | 130 | 28,9 | 40 | 38,1 | 7 | 31,8 | 177 | 30,7 |
| Missing Values | 138 | 30,7 | 23 | 21,9 | 9 | 40,9 | 170 | 29,5 |
Table 2
Means, Bivariate Correlations and Cronbach’s alpha (α).
| M | SD | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1. Workplace flexibility | 2.95 | 1.18 | (.86) | –.06 | –.05 | .10* | .11** | –.10* | .17** | –.22** |
| 2. Subjective workplace telepressure | 2.94 | .92 | (.90) | .51** | .26** | –.37** | .31** | –.13** | .37** | |
| 3. Technoaddiction | 4.16 | 1.25 | (.86) | .44** | –.33** | .47** | –.14** | .38** | ||
| 4. Technology-assisted supplemental work | 2.96 | .93 | (.82) | –.39** | .48** | –.08* | .25** | |||
| 5. Psychological detachment | 3.16 | .95 | (.81) | –.46** | .23** | –.35** | ||||
| 6. Work-family conflict | 1.94 | .58 | (.88) | –.35** | .52** | |||||
| 7. Subjective vitality | 4.11 | 1.05 | (.84) | –.42** | ||||||
| 8. Psychological distress | 1.61 | .58 | (.94) |
[i] Note: *p < .05; **p < .01; Cronbach’s alpha (α) on the diagonal.
Table 3
Mediation Analysis.
| MODEL PATHWAYS | ESTIMATE | SE | 95% CI | Pm | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| LOWER | UPPER | ||||
| Total | –.1088 | .0200 | –.1481 | –.0695 | |
| 1. Workplace flexibility → Technology-assisted supplemental work → Psychological distress | .0141 | .0063 | .0020 | .0275 | 0.09 |
| Total | .1602 | .0252 | .1107 | .2096 | |
| 1. Technology-assisted supplemental work → Subjective vitality → Psychological distress | .0139 | .0076 | .0000 | .0305 | 0.08 |
| 2. Technology-assisted supplemental work → Work-family conflict → Psychological distress | .1110 | .0181 | .0077 | .0538 | 0.69 |
| 3. Technology-assisted supplemental work → Psychological detachment → Psychological distress | .0295 | .0117 | .0768 | .1476 | 0.18 |
[i] Note: Pm = ratio between indirect effect and total effect (ab/c). It is an indicator or effect sizes in mediation; CI = Confidence Intervals.
Figure 2
Mediation analysis of technology-assisted supplemental work in the relationship between workplace flexibility and psychological distress.
Note: c is the total direct effect of the predictive variable on the criterion variable; c’ is the direct effect of the predictive variable on the criterion variable after controlling for the mediator. *p < .05; ***p < .001.
Figure 3
Mediation analysis of subjective vitality, work family-conflict and psychological detachment between technology-assisted supplemental work and psychological distress.
Note: c is the total direct effect of the predictive variable on the criterion variable; c’ is the direct effect of the predictive variable on the criterion variable after controlling for the mediator. *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.
Table 4
Moderation Analysis for the Variable of Subjective Workplace Telepressure.
| TECHNOLOGY-ASSISTED SUPLEMENTAL WORK | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| β | SE | t | p | CONFIDENCE INTERVALS | ||
| LOWER | UPPER | |||||
| Constant | 2.56 | .48 | 5.29 | .000 | 1.6156 | 3.5190 |
| Type of Contract or Employment | .01 | .02 | .89 | .372 | –.0217 | .0579 |
| Current Profession/Occupation | .01 | .01 | .69 | .486 | –.0199 | .0418 |
| Workplace flexibility | .08 | .03 | 2.57 | .010 | .0197 | .1472 |
| Subjetive workplace telepressure | .26 | .04 | 6.57 | .000 | .1859 | .3443 |
| Workplace flexibility × S. Workplace Telepressure | .08 | .03 | 2.54 | .011 | .0190 | .1466 |
| R | R2 | F | p | |||
| .3105 | .0964 | 12.18 | .000 | |||
Figure 4
Moderating effect of subjective workplace telepressure between perceived workplace flexibility and technology-assisted supplemental work.
Table 5
Moderation Analysis for the Variable of Technoaddiction.
| TECHNOLOGY-ASSISTED SUPLEMENTAL WORK | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| β | SE | t | p | CONFIDENCE INTERVALS | ||
| LOWER | UPPER | |||||
| Constant | 2.94 | .45 | 6.52 | .000 | 2.0548 | 3.8261 |
| Type of Contract or Employment | .03 | .01 | 1.63 | .103 | –.0063 | .0677 |
| Current Profession/Occupation | –.00 | .01 | –.19 | .843 | –.0316 | .0258 |
| Workplace flexibility | .08 | .03 | 2.92 | .003 | .0288 | .1470 |
| Technoaddiction | .33 | .02 | 12.16 | .000 | .2805 | .3885 |
| Workplace flexibility × Technoaddiction | .04 | .02 | 2.02 | .043 | .0013 | .0886 |
| R | R2 | F | p | |||
| .4721 | .2229 | 32.75 | .000 | |||
Figure 5
Moderating effect of technoaddiction between perceived workplace flexibility and technology-assisted supplemental work.