Table 1
The comparison of general physiological characteristics, pulmonary function, and respiratory muscle strength variables was conducted using two-way repeated measures ANOVA among running, cycling, and swimming exercises, and between pre- and post-tests within each exercise protocol.
| VARIABLES | n = 15 | TWO-WAY ANOVA REPEATED | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| RUNNING | CYCLING | SWIMMING | TIME | EXERCISE | TIME x EXERCISE | ||||||
| PRE-TEST | POST-TEST | PRE-TEST | POST-TEST | PRE-TEST | POST-TEST | ||||||
| BW (kg) | 66.21 ± 12.51 | 66.02 ± 12.32 | 66.64 ± 11.67 | 66.55 ± 11.55 | 67.28 ± 11.37 | 67.77 ± 11.39 | .271 | .774 | .445 | ||
| Body Fat (%) | 22.12 ± 9.12 | 21.67 ± 8.82 | 21.78 ± 8.91 | 22.17 ± 8.75 | 21.28 ± 9.43 | 21.52 ± 9.44 | .560 | .641 | .069 | ||
| BMI (kg/m2) | 23.15 ± 4.07 | 23.06 ± 4.09 | 23.02 ± 4.04 | 22.94 ± 4.05 | 22.80 ± 4.12 | 22.78 ± 4.07 | .167 | .119 | .683 | ||
| HR (bpm) | 72.66 ± 14.01 | 93.13 ± 15.31* | 76.73 ± 15.21 | 93.86 ± 17.79* | 74.20 ± 14.38 | 98.73 ± 12.45* | <.001* | .433 | .262 | ||
| SBP (mmHg) | 116.70 ± 7.60 | 121.00 ± 7.57 | 117.06 ± 64.67 | 119.67 ± 8.33 | 112.46 ± 9.91 | 115.73 ± 17.30 | .152 | .075 | .882 | ||
| DBP (mmHg) | 64.93 ± 6.68 | 68.80 ± 6.51 | 64.67 ± 8.05 | 64.26 ± 6.86 | 69.33 ± 8.26 | 67.20 ± 5.34 | .097 | .715 | .176 | ||
| FVC (L) | 3.28 ± 0.70 | 3.28 ± 0.74 | 3.34 ± 0.91 | 3.29 ± 0.95 | 3.36 ± 0.97 | 3.36 ± 0.91 | .574 | .731 | .673 | ||
| FEV1 (L) | 3.13 ± 0.68 | 3.01 ± 0.63 | 3.12 ± 0.79 | 3.04 ± 0.83 | 3.16 ± 0.89 | 3.21 ± 0.83 | .064 | .442 | .527 | ||
| FEV1/FVC (%pred) | 90.47 ± 5.47 | 92.09 ± 8.00 | 88.45 ± 22.48 | 89.22 ± 22.90 | 90.06 ± 16.20 | 91.79 ± 15.48 | .470 | .692 | .139 | ||
| MVV (L/min) | 130.65 ± 30.49 | 134.32 ± 28.03 | 133.36 ± 33.63 | 135.22 ± 32.26 | 142.39 ± 32.31 | 145.72 ± 32.65 | .064 | .205 | .879 | ||
| MIP (cmH2O) | 93.93 ± 18.91 | 95.16 ± 24.15 | 88.30 ± 17.85 | 94.10 ± 21.60 | 101.80 ± 19.76 | 98.13 ± 16.92 | .069 | .571 | .169 | ||
| MEP (cmH2O) | 94.46 ± 19.41 | 97.23 ± 18.16 | 95.66 ± 19.14 | 97.40 ± 19.35 | 97.93 ± 16.99 | 97.46 ± 15.51 | .806 | .258 | .416 | ||
[i] Data are presented as mean ± SD. *p < .05 vs. pre-test.
(BW = Body weight, BMI = Body Mass Index, HR = Heart rate, SBP = Systolic blood pressure, DBP = Diastolic blood pressure, FVC = Force Vital Capacity, FEV1 = Forced Expiratory Volume in one second, MVV = Maximum Voluntary Ventilation, MIP = Maximum Inspiratory Pressure, MEP = Maximum Expiratory Pressure).
Figure 1
CONSORT flow diagram of participant allocation, follow-up and analysis.
Table 2
The comparison of NBF, PNIF, and rhinitis symptom score variables including nasal congestion, itching, sneezing, rhinorrhea, and total rhinitis symptoms was conducted using the LMM analysis among running, cycling, and swimming exercises, and between pre- and post-tests within each exercise protocol.
| VARIABLES | n = 15 | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| RUNNING (R) X̅ ± SD | CYCLING (C) X̅ ± SD | SWIMMING (S) X̅ ± SD | LMM ANALYSIS | |||||||
| PRE-TEST | POST-TEST | PRE-TEST | POST-TEST | PRE-TEST | POST-TEST | BETWEEN GROUPS | ESTIMATE | SE | P-VALUE | |
| NBF (PU) | 126.78 ± 16.43 | 75.62 ± 8.34 | 134.48 ± 17.77 | 94.18 ± 10.05 | 114.63 ± 9.32 | 102.52 ± 9.80 | ||||
| Estimate | 51.2 | 40.3 | 12.1 | R vs C | –18.56 | 15.2 | 0.674 | |||
| SE | 15.2 | 15.2 | 15.2 | R vs S | –26.90 | 15.2 | 0.240 | |||
| p-value | 0.001* | 0.009* | 0.426 | C vs S | –8.34 | 15.2 | 1.000 | |||
| PNIF (L/min) | 108.67 ± 8.62 | 135.00 ± 8.15 | 110.00 ± 8.76 | 136.33 ± 7.99 | 126.66 ± 6.06 | 135.67 ± 6.98 | ||||
| Estimate | –26.30 | –26.30 | –9.00 | R vs C | –1.33 | 8.04 | 1.000 | |||
| SE | 8.04 | 8.04 | 8.04 | R vs S | –0.66 | 8.04 | 1.000 | |||
| p-value | 0.001* | 0.001* | 0.267 | C vs S | 0.66 | 8.04 | 1.000 | |||
| Rhinitis symptoms (Scores) | ||||||||||
| Nasal congestion | 1.20 ± 0.20 | 0.40 ± 0.16 | 1.00 ± 0.21 | 0.46 ± 0.19 | 1.00 ± 0.21 | 0.33 ± 0.15 | ||||
| Estimate | 0.80 | 0.53 | 0.66 | R vs C | –0.06 | 0.26 | 1.000 | |||
| SE | 0.26 | 0.26 | 0.26 | R vs S | 0.06 | 0.26 | 1.000 | |||
| p-value | 0.003* | 0.050 | 0.015* | C vs S | 0.13 | 0.26 | 1.000 | |||
| Itching | 0.80 ± 0.22 | 0.20 ± 0.14 | 0.86 ± 0.23 | 0.13 ± 0.09 | 0.93 ± 0.22 | 0.13 ± 0.09 | ||||
| Estimate | 0.60 | 0.73 | 0.80 | R vs C | 0.06 | 0.25 | 1.000 | |||
| SE | 0.25 | 0.25 | 0.25 | R vs S | 0.06 | 0.25 | 1.000 | |||
| p-value | 0.021* | 0.005* | 0.002* | C vs S | 0.00 | 0.25 | 1.000 | |||
| Sneezing | 0.66 ± 0.25 | 0.00 ± 0.00 | 0.60 ± 0.19 | 0.00 ± 0.00 | 0.46 ± 0.23 | 0.66 ± 0.06 | ||||
| Estimate | 0.66 | 0.60 | 0.40 | R vs C | 0.00 | 0.23 | 1.000 | |||
| SE | 0.23 | 0.23 | 0.23 | R vs S | –0.06 | 0.23 | 1.000 | |||
| p-value | 0.005* | 0.011* | 0.087 | C vs S | –0.06 | 0.23 | 1.000 | |||
| Rhinorrhea | 1.06 ± 0.26 | 0.53 ± 0.21 | 0.80 ± 0.24 | 0.60 ± 0.19 | 0.86 ± 0.23 | 0.46 ± 0.16 | ||||
| Estimate | 0.53 | 0.20 | 0.40 | R vs C | –0.06 | 0.28 | 1.000 | |||
| SE | 0.28 | 0.28 | 0.28 | R vs S | 0.06 | 0.28 | 1.000 | |||
| p-value | 0.068 | 0.489 | 0.169 | C vs S | 0.13 | 0.28 | 1.000 | |||
| Total rhinitis symptoms | 3.73 ± 0.67 | 1.13 ± 0.29 | 3.26 ± 0.71 | 1.20 ± 0.32 | 3.26 ± 0.75 | 1.00 ± 0.25 | ||||
| Estimate | 2.60 | 2.07 | 2.27 | R vs C | –0.06 | 0.77 | 1.000 | |||
| SE | 0.77 | 0.77 | 0.77 | R vs S | 0.13 | 0.77 | 1.000 | |||
| p-value | 0.001* | 0.009* | 0.004* | C vs S | 0.20 | 0.77 | 1.000 | |||
[i] Data are presented as mean ± SD. *p < .05 vs. pre-test.
(NBF = Nasal blood flow, PNIF = Peak nasal inspiratory flow).
Figure 2
The LMM analysis of NBF, PNIF, and rhinitis symptom score variables.
*p < .05 vs. pre-test.
Table 3
The comparison of NBF, PNIF, and rhinitis symptom score variables including nasal congestion, itching, sneezing, rhinorrhea, and total rhinitis symptoms was conducted using the LMM analysis among running, cycling, and swimming exercises, and between pre- and post-tests within each exercise protocol.
| VARIABLES | n = 15 | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| RUNNING (R) X̅ ± SD | CYCLING (C) X̅ ± SD | SWIMMING (S) X̅ ± SD | LMM ANALYSIS | |||||||||
| PRE-TEST | POST-TEST | PRE-TEST | POST-TEST | PRE-TEST | POST-TEST | BETWEEN GROUPS | ESTIMATE | SE | P-VALUE | |||
| IL-2 (pg/ml) | 14.82 ± 3.60 | 7.72 ± 2.57 | 15.17 ± 5.05 | 9.33 ± 3.31 | 47.58 ± 25.99 | 30.45 ± 20.54 | ||||||
| Estimate | 7.09 | 5.84 | 17.14 | R vs C | –1.60 | 17.90 | 1.000 | |||||
| SE | 17.90 | 17.90 | 17.90 | R vs S | –22.72 | 17.90 | 0.623 | |||||
| p-value | 0.692 | 0.744 | 0.341 | C vs S | –21.12 | 17.90 | 0.724 | |||||
| IL-4 (pg/ml) | 72.49 ± 22.31 | 37.45 ± 15.13 | 75.37 ± 24.86 | 47.37 ± 17.55 | 73.53 ± 20.94 | 38.17 ± 15.38 | ||||||
| Estimate | 35.00 | 28.00 | 35.40 | R vs C | –9.91 | 13.70 | 1.000 | |||||
| SE | 13.70 | 13.70 | 13.70 | R vs S | –0.71 | 13.70 | 1.000 | |||||
| p-value | 0.012* | 0.045* | 0.012* | C vs S | 9.20 | 13.70 | 1.000 | |||||
| IL-5 (pg/ml) | 35.83 ± 17.86 | 7.97 ± 2.24 | 11.02 ± 3.85 | 5.89 ± 2.08 | 20.35 ± 8.79 | 9.91 ± 2.75 | ||||||
| Estimate | 27.87 | 5.13 | 10.44 | R vs C | 2.07 | 11.40 | 1.000 | |||||
| SE | 11.40 | 11.40 | 11.40 | R vs S | –1.94 | 11.40 | 1.000 | |||||
| p-value | 0.017* | 0.655 | 0.364 | C vs S | –4.02 | 11.40 | 1.000 | |||||
| IL-6 (pg/ml) | 46.17 ± 11.10 | 21.70 ± 3.93 | 78.36 ± 49.45 | 79.91 ± 54.12 | 79.34 ± 52.86 | 45.75 ± 27.97 | ||||||
| Estimate | 24.47 | –1.55 | 33.60 | R vs C | –58.20 | 49.90 | 0.741 | |||||
| SE | 49.90 | 49.90 | 49.90 | R vs S | –24.04 | 49.90 | 1.000 | |||||
| p-value | 0.625 | 0.975 | 0.502 | C vs S | 34.16 | 49.90 | 1.000 | |||||
| IL-10 (pg/ml) | 1.20 ± 0.19 | 0.88 ± 0.08 | 2.16 ± 1.05 | 2.28 ± 1.16 | 6.22 ± 4.86 | 6.11 ± 5.09 | ||||||
| Estimate | 0.32 | –0.11 | 0.11 | R vs C | –1.39 | 3.75 | 1.000 | |||||
| SE | 3.75 | 3.75 | 3.75 | R vs S | –5.23 | 3.75 | 0.502 | |||||
| p-value | 0.931 | 0.975 | 0.976 | C vs S | –3.83 | 3.75 | 0.931 | |||||
| IL-13 (pg/ml) | 7.49 ± 2.36 | 2.87 ± 0.94 | 5.45 ± 1.73 | 3.21 ± 1.08 | 5.01 ± 1.52 | 2.78 ± 1.03 | ||||||
| Estimate | 4.63 | 2.24 | 2.23 | R vs C | –0.33 | 1.37 | 1.000 | |||||
| SE | 1.37 | 1.37 | 1.37 | R vs S | 0.08 | 1.37 | 1.000 | |||||
| p-value | 0.001* | 0.107 | 0.108 | C vs S | 0.42 | 1.37 | 1.000 | |||||
| TNF-α (pg/ml) | 15.93 ± 1.21 | 7.95 ± 3.02 | 18.72 ± 6.56 | 10.49 ± 3.74 | 16.65 ± 4.33 | 8.17 ± 3.05 | ||||||
| Estimate | 7.99 | 8.23 | 8.48 | R vs C | –2.54 | 3.75 | 1.000 | |||||
| SE | 3.75 | 3.75 | 3.75 | R vs S | –0.21 | 3.75 | 1.000 | |||||
| p-value | 0.036* | 0.031* | 0.026* | C vs S | 2.32 | 3.75 | 1.000 | |||||
| IFN-γ (pg/ml) | 7.01 ± 2.89 | 3.94 ± 1.70 | 7.06 ± 3.71 | 4.80 ± 2.75 | 10.71 ± 4.11 | 6.34 ± 2.60 | ||||||
| Estimate | 3.07 | 2.26 | 4.38 | R vs C | –0.86 | 3.09 | 1.000 | |||||
| SE | 3.09 | 3.09 | 3.09 | R vs S | –2.39 | 3.09 | 1.000 | |||||
| p-value | 0.324 | 0.466 | 0.161 | C vs S | –1.53 | 3.09 | 1.000 | |||||
| IL-4/IL-10 | 66.05 ± 22.26 | 40.08 ± 16.11 | 73.76 ± 27.51 | 42.86 ± 17.80 | 78.21 ± 26.50 | 52.74 ± 14.55 | ||||||
| Estimate | 26.00 | 30.90 | 45.50 | R vs C | –2.78 | 17.6 | 1.000 | |||||
| SE | 17.60 | 17.60 | 17.60 | R vs S | 7.34 | 17.6 | 1.000 | |||||
| p-value | 0.014* | 0.083 | 0.119 | C vs S | 10.11 | 17.6 | 1.000 | |||||
[i] Data are presented as mean ± SD. *p < .05 vs. pre-test.
(IL = interleukin, TNF-α = Tumor necrosis factor-alpha, IFN-γ = Interferon-gamma).
Figure 3
The LMM analysis of cytokines variables.