Figure 1
Data collection timeline.
Table 1
Timing of data collection measures.
| MEASURE | TIME 1 | TIME 2 |
|---|---|---|
| Caregiver reported | ✔ | ✔ |
| Demographic details * | ✔ | ✔ |
| Child attending ECCE services * | ✔ | |
| Socioeconomic status * | ✔ | ✔ |
| Home Learning Environment * | ✔ | ✔ |
| Parenting and Family Adjustment Scales * | ✔ | ✔ |
| Child Exposure to Community Violence checklist * | ✔ | ✔ |
| COVID-19 pandemic related questions | ✔ | ✔ |
| Child direct assessment | ||
| Executive function – Early Years Toolbox * | ✔ | ✔ |
| Early numeracy – Give N | ✔ | ✔ |
| School readiness – International Development and Early Learning Assessment | ✔ |
[i] Note: ECCE = Early childhood care and education.
Table 2
Descriptive characteristics of the sample.
| CHARACTERISTICS | TIME 1 | |
|---|---|---|
| Child sex (female) | 104 (55%) | |
| Child attending ECCE services (yes) | T1: 3 (1.6%) | T2: 94 (55%) |
| Caregiver post school education (yes) | 40 (21%) | |
| Certificate | 34 (18%) | |
| Diploma | 5 (3%) | |
| Degree | 1 (0.6%) | |
| Caregiver relationship to child | ||
| Mother | 131 (69%) | |
| Grandmother | 36 (19%) | |
| Father | 9 (5%) | |
| Aunt | 10 (5%) | |
| Other | 3 (2%) | |
| Monthly household income range | ||
| <R750 | 16 (9%) | |
| R750–R1500 | 52 (28.5%) | |
| R1500–R3000 | 70 (38%) | |
| R3000–R6000 | 36 (20%) | |
| R6000–R11000 | 7 (4%) | |
| R11000–R27000 | 0 | |
| >R27000 | 1 (0.5%) | |
[i] Note: ECCE = Early childhood care and education.
Table 3
Descriptive statistics for continuous variables included in analysis.
| TIME 1 | TIME 2 | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| MEAN | SD | MIN | MAX | MEAN | SD | MIN | MAX | |
| Executive function | ||||||||
| Composite score | 0 | 0.72 | –1.8 | 1.78 | 0 | 0.71 | –2.4 | 1.18 |
| Inhibition | 0.60 | 0.23 | 0 | 1 | 0.72 | 0.21 | 0.10 | 1 |
| Cognitive flexibility | 7.77 | 2.15 | 2 | 12 | 8.16 | 2.73 | 0 | 12 |
| Working memory | 1.54 | 0.80 | 0 | 3.33 | 1.99 | .82 | 0 | 4 |
| Demographics | ||||||||
| Child age (months) | 57 | 6.9 | 35.15 | 70.73 | 64.2 | 6.84 | 42.51 | 78.61 |
| # languages spoken at home | 1.21 | 0.46 | 1 | 3 | ||||
| Caregiver education | 10.15 | 2.28 | 1 | 15 | ||||
| # children in house | 2.98 | 1.46 | 1 | 9 | ||||
| Household asset score | 7.96 | 3 | 1 | 19 | ||||
| Home learning environment | ||||||||
| HLA frequency score | 10.34 | 3.02 | 3 | 16 | ||||
| Diversity of caregivers | 1.02 | 0.43 | 0 | 3.25 | ||||
| Books and toys in home | 2.59 | 0.96 | 0 | 4 | ||||
| Time with child | 4.05 | 1.77 | 2 | 6 | ||||
| PAFAS | ||||||||
| Caregiver-child relationship | 2.48 | 2.38 | 0 | 13 | ||||
| Family relationships | 3.67 | 2.51 | 0 | 11 | ||||
| CECV | ||||||||
| CECV total score | 13.38 | 10.76 | 0 | 59 | ||||
[i] Note: HLA = home learning activities. PAFAS = Parent and family adjustment scale. CECV = child exposure to community violence.
Table 4
Linear regression predicting EF at time 2 (N = 171).
| STEP 1 | β | p VALUE |
|---|---|---|
| Child age | 0.29 | <0.001 |
| EF at time 1 | 0.37 | <0.001 |
| r2 = 0.32, p < 0.001 | ||
| STEP 2 | β | p VALUE |
| Child age | 0.22 | 0.003 |
| EF at time 1 | 0.32 | <0.001 |
| Child attending ECCE services | 0.26 | <0.001 |
| Diversity of caregivers | 0.15 | 0.022 |
| Books and toys in the house | –0.14 | 0.031 |
| Family relationships | 0.01 | 0.823 |
| r2 = 0.41, p < 0.001 | ||
[i] Note: ECCE = early childhood care and education.
Table 5
Linear regressions predicting change in EF between Time 1 and Time 2.
| STEP 1 | β | p VALUE |
|---|---|---|
| Child age | 0.35 | <0.001 |
| r2 = 0.21, p < 0.001 | ||
| STEP 2 | β | p VALUE |
| Child age | 0.35 | 0.001 |
| Child attending ECCE services | 0.30 | 0.001 |
| Diversity of caregivers | 0.14 | 0.041 |
| Books and toys in the house | –0.18 | 0.007 |
| Family relationships | –0.03 | 0.642 |
| r2 = 0.33, p < 0.001 | ||
[i] Note: ECCE = early childhood care and education. *p < 0.05.