Figure 1
Exemplary trial sequence with proposed control state changes, and hypothesized binding and retrieval processes. We examined sequences of three trials to probe for binding and retrieval of error-induced control states. On each trial, participants responded with a left or right response to a target letter that was surrounded by irrelevant letters. The arrangement of letters corresponds to the design of the Confirmatory Experiment. Stimuli are not drawn to scale for legibility. Assumed representations of the features of an action episode are shown as circles. Binding is illustrated through lines between feature representations and retrieval through arrows. In trial n–2, a commission error (orange) should lead to increased control (Ctrl) in comparison to correct responses (grey). The resulting control state then binds to the presented stimuli (S) in trial n–1 as do features of the executed correct response (R). A repetition of the relevant stimulus in trial n is assumed to retrieve the previously bound control state and response (top), whereas retrieval does not take place for stimulus changes (bottom).
Table 1
Descriptive data of Reanalysis 1. Means and standard deviations (in brackets) of response times in n (RT) and n–1 (RTn–1) and of the percentage of commission errors for each analysis cell.
| RESPONSE IN N–2 | CONDITION SEQUENCE IN N–1 | CONDITION SEQUENCE IN N | RT [MS] | ERRORS [%] | RTN–1[MS] |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Correct | Target change | correct response change | Target repetition | correct response repetition | 386 (34) | 3.2 (3.3) | 455 (21) |
| Target change | correct response repetition | 417 (34) | 13.1 (5.9) | |||
| Error | Target repetition | correct response repetition | 394 (63) | 2.6 (5.0) | 443 (49) | |
| Target change | correct response repetition | 426 (50) | 8.8 (10.9) |
Figure 2
Mean response times of Reanalysis 1 and 2. Mean response times as a function of the response in n–2 (correct in black, error in bright orange) and whether correct response repetitions had to be executed for target repetitions or target changes in (A) Reanalysis 1 and (B) Reanalysis 2 for which we averaged over feedback conditions here. Error bars represent the standard error of the differences, separately computed for correct and erroneous responses in n–2.
Table 2
Descriptive data of Reanalysis 2. Means and standard deviations (in brackets) of response times in n (RT) and n–1 (RTn–1) and of the percentage of commission errors for each analysis cell.
| FEEDBACK | RESPONSE IN N–2 | CONDITION SEQUENCE FROM N–2 TO N–1 | CONDITION SEQUENCE FROM N–1 TO N | RT [MS] | ERRORS [%] | RTN–1 [MS] |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Absent | Correct | Target change | correct response change | Target repetition | correct response repetition | 404 (24) | 4.4 (4.3) | 453 (29) |
| Target change | correct response repetition | 441 (32) | 13.1 (6.6) | ||||
| Error | Target repetition | correct response repetition | 417 (27) | 4.5 (5.9) | 444 (35) | ||
| Target change | correct response repetition | 435 (37) | 13.2 (11.6) | ||||
| Present | Correct | Target repetition | correct response repetition | 406 (27) | 4.7 (4.7) | 460 (27) | |
| Target change | correct response repetition | 446 (22) | 20.7 (12.3) | ||||
| Error | Target repetition | correct response repetition | 415 (36) | 5.6 (7.2) | 462 (33) | ||
| Target change | correct response repetition | 440 (44) | 11.8 (10.3) |
Table 3
Descriptive data of Reanalysis 3. Means and standard deviations (in parentheses) of response times (RTs) and of the percentage of commission errors for each analysis cell.
| RESPONSE IN N–1 | CONDITION SEQUENCE IN N | RT [MS] | ERRORS [%] |
|---|---|---|---|
| Correct | Target change | correct response change to neutral | 566 (22) | 19.2 (6.3) |
| Error | Target change | correct response change to neutral | 590 (24) | 22.2 (11.1) |
| Target change | correct response change to erroneous | 570 (29) | 21.3 (12.1) |
Table 4
Descriptive data of the main analyses for the Confirmatory Experiment. Means and standard deviations (in brackets) of response times in n (RT) and n–1 (RTn–1) and of the percentage of commission errors for each analysis cell.
| RESPONSE IN N–2 | CONDITION SEQUENCE FROM N–2 TO N–1 | CONDITION SEQUENCE FROM N–1 TO N | RT [MS] UNMATCHED MATCHED | ERRORS [%] | RTN–1 [MS]: UNMATCHED MATCHED |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Correct | Target change | correct response change | Target repetition | correct response repetition | 501 (39) 504 (39) | 6.1 (3.9) | 521 (35) 531 (36) |
| Target change | correct response repetition | 523 (36) 525 (36) | 14.5 (7.3) | |||
| Error | Target repetition | correct response repetition | 507 (39) 507 (39) | 5.0 (4.9) | 530 (36) 530 (36) | |
| Target change | correct response repetition | 523 (35) 523 (35) | 12.0 (8.2) |
Figure 3
Mean response times of the Confirmatory Experiment. Mean response times as a function of the response in n–2 (correct in black, error in bright orange) and whether correct response repetitions had to be executed for target repetitions or target changes in the Confirmatory Experiment for (A) unmatched data and (B) data that was matched for effects of the response in n–2 on RTn–1. Error bars represent the standard error of the differences, separately computed for correct and erroneous responses in n–2.
Table 5
Descriptive data of explorative analyses for the Confirmatory Experiment. Means and standard deviations (in brackets) of response times in n (RT) and n–1 (RTn–1) and of the percentage of commission errors for each analysis cell.
| RTN–1 | RESPONSE IN N–2 | CONDITION SEQUENCE FROM N–2 TO N–1 | CONDITION SEQUENCE FROM N–1 TO N | RT [MS] | RTN–1 [MS] |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Short | Correct | Target change | correct response change | Target repetition | correct response repetition | 488 (39) | 472 (36) |
| Target change | correct response repetition | 515 (36) | ||||
| Error | Target repetition | correct response repetition | 496 (39) | 480 (37) | ||
| Target change | correct response repetition | 512 (38) | ||||
| Long | Correct | Target change | correct response change | Target repetition | correct response repetition | 514 (39) | 569 (35) |
| Target change | correct response repetition | 532 (37) | ||||
| Error | Target repetition | correct response repetition | 519 (44) | 579 (38) | ||
| Target change | correct response repetition | 533 (41) |