Open Education in Latin America: A Regional Assessment of Open Educational Resources Initiatives

2.1 Open Educational Resources

OER are defined as materials intended for teaching, learning, or research that have been made publicly available in any format, either by entering the public domain or by being protected under legal frameworks that authorize their free use. These resources can include any openly published material—text, audio, video, software, or other formats—so long as they are accessible at no cost and can be used, modified, and redistributed with minimal or no legal restrictions (UNESCO 2022).

The OER movement originated in the early 21st century, driven by landmark initiatives such as MIT Open Course Ware in 2001, which marked a turning point by freely releasing university course content to the public. This approach was later consolidated by the 2007 Cape Town Open Education Declaration, which articulated a shared vision of open and equitable access to knowledge, bringing together a global community of educators, researchers, and policymakers committed to educational transformation through openness (Cape Town Open Education Declaration 2007; UNESCO 2022). In its initial stages, the OER movement focused primarily on the production and dissemination of free educational materials, responding to the growing exclusion caused by rising academic costs and structural barriers to access—particularly in contexts of social and technological inequality (Blyth 2017; Bossu, Brown & Bull 2014).

Over time, the OER movement has evolved beyond the mere provision of free content. Today, it is understood as part of a comprehensive strategy for educational openness, emphasizing the collaborative creation of content, active engagement of educational communities, and the implementation of institutional policies that promote equity, quality, and sustainability in teaching and learning processes (Hilton 2016; Lo, Tlili & Huang 2022; Wiley 2007). This paradigm shift has been accompanied by increased attention to the pedagogical impact of OER. Nowadays, the risks and benefits of co-creating OER with generative artificial intelligence are being evaluated (Burrell 2024; Tlili & Burgos 2024). Several studies have documented their benefits, including cost reductions for students, improvements in academic performance, and enhanced motivation, particularly when resources are adapted to specific local contexts (Blyth 2017; Bossu, Brown & Bull 2014; Cobo 2013; Pincay Piza 2020).

In this context, OER are closely linked to the development of open educational policies, which advocate for the removal of legal, technical, and pedagogical barriers to knowledge access (Bossu, Brown & Bull 2014; Hilton 2016). According to the UNESCO Recommendation on Open Educational Resources, this openness must be accompanied by capacity building, the promotion of sustainable models, and the development of legal and regulatory frameworks that support the production, use, and adaptation of OER at local, national, and international levels (UNESCO 2022). In this sense, OER are not merely alternative pedagogical tools; they constitute a strategic instrument for advancing a more democratic, participatory, and sustainable education aligned with the principles of open science, equitable knowledge access, and the digital transformation of educational systems (Hodgkinson-Williams & Arinto 2018; Torres Velandia 2021).

2.2. Open Educational Resources in Latin America

In Latin America, the implementation of OER has gained increasing relevance as a key strategy to address persistent challenges related to educational equity, access to digital resources, and the development of technological competencies. Regional initiatives such as the Latin American Network of Educational Portals (RELPE) have promoted the integration and exchange of resources among countries, facilitating access to high-quality educational materials and encouraging inter-institutional collaboration (RELPE 2010). Complementing these efforts, other projects like the ROER4D Research programme have contributed to the understanding of open educational practices (OEP) in the Global South (Hodgkinson-Williams & Arinto 2018). More recent projects such as the STEM+ Creatón have supported teacher training through the collaborative creation of OER in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM), thereby contributing to pedagogical innovation and strengthening the use of open resources as tools to improve educational quality in the region (CIDSTEM 2024).

Despite the growing interest in Open Educational Resources across Latin America, multiple studies have documented persistent challenges that limit their adoption and impact. For instance, Hodgkinson-Williams et al. (2018) found that barriers to open education include a reliance on copying existing OER without localization, inconsistent curation and rehosting of adapted resources, limited dissemination due to the lack of communication strategies, weak quality assurance processes, and insufficient feedback mechanisms to support continuous improvement. Toledo (2018) examined the Open Access and OER policy landscapes in Chile, Colombia, and Uruguay, revealing that while Colombia shows emerging efforts and Uruguay presents an enabling environment for open policy development, Chile’s commercialized higher education model hinders OER advancement. This author recommends multi-stakeholder engagement, policy reform, and increased visibility for regional Open Education initiatives. Similarly, in a systematic review, Acosta-Martínez, Usart-Rodríguez and Duch-Gavaldá (2025) found that, across geographic regions, articles consistently reported similar challenges and benefits related to the use and adaptation of OER. Key barriers include personal factors (e.g., lack of time, limited ICT skills, low motivation), technical issues (e.g., outdated infrastructure, poor bandwidth, confusing interfaces), legal uncertainties (e.g., unclear copyright and licensing), and institutional obstacles (e.g., absence of OER policies or leadership support). In a study by Sáenz Rodríguez, Hernandez Pino and Hernández (2018), Colombian teachers recognized the importance of government policies to support broader adoption of OER and the consolidation of OEP in schools.

Beyond the promotion of OER use and creation, their effective implementation requires careful attention to various factors. Westermann Juárez and Venegas Muggli (2018) argue that openness alone does not guarantee educational impact, as it functions within a broader ecosystem of tools, practices, and contextual variables. In their study, they emphasize that neither openness nor ICTs inherently produce specific outcomes without consideration of the surrounding pedagogical and institutional conditions. This aligns with the work of Sáenz Rodríguez, Hernandez Pino and Hernández (2018), who found that effective OER adoption in Colombian schools depends on moving beyond mass-training approaches and providing pedagogical support for developing OEP, emphasizing constructivist models, ICT integration, and Creative Commons use. Effective implementation of OER requires careful attention to the types of open licenses that govern their reuse, adaptation, and redistribution. In particular, Creative Commons (CC) licenses have become the most widely adopted standard for OER distribution. These licenses allow authors to define the level of openness of their work through combinations of attributes such as attribution (BY), non-commercial use (NC), no derivatives (ND), and share alike (SA). The most permissive licenses, such as CC BY and CC0 (public domain), strongly encourage reuse, while more restrictive ones limit certain uses or the creation of derivative works (Creative Commons 2021). Understanding these licenses is essential not only to ensure respect for copyright but also to foster collaborative creation and the ethical circulation of knowledge within open educational environments (Creative Commons 2021; Hilton 2016).

2.3. UNESCO Recommendation on Open Educational Resources

The UNESCO Recommendation on Open Educational Resources, adopted in 2019 by Member States, constitutes the first international normative framework aimed at guiding the development, implementation, and sustainability of OER from a perspective grounded in social justice, inclusion, and global cooperation. Aligned with the principles of the UN’s Sustainable Development Goal 4, this instrument emphasizes the need to strengthen open, equitable, and resilient educational environments through the systematic use of openly licensed resources (UNESCO 2022).

The Recommendation outlines five core strategic objectives: (1) building capacity among stakeholders to create, reuse, and adapt OER ethically and legally; (2) developing supportive policies that facilitate the institutional integration of OER; (3) ensuring inclusive and equitable access to quality resources, particularly in contexts of vulnerability; (4) fostering sustainability models that guarantee the continuous availability of OER; and (5) promoting international cooperation as a means to broaden their reach, share best practices, and strengthen global open education networks. These strategic objectives constitute a key normative framework for guiding the development, implementation, and evaluation of OER-related policies across all levels of education, ensuring their alignment with the principles of equity, sustainability, and international collaboration (UNESCO 2022) (see Figure 1).

Figure 1

3.1. Selection Criteria for Analyzed Websites

To ensure a comprehensive and representative mapping of the Open Educational Resources available in Latin America, various categories of websites were defined where such materials are likely to be found—even in cases where they are not explicitly labeled as OER. The automated search strategy considered governmental, public, and academic domains across all Spanish-speaking countries in the region.

Specifically, web domains associated with each Spanish-speaking Latin American country were used to identify official portals, open educational platforms, observatories, repositories, and other relevant digital spaces. The following country-specific domains were included: .ar (Argentina), .bo (Bolivia), .cl (Chile), .co (Colombia), .cr (Costa Rica), .cu (Cuba), .ec (Ecuador), .sv (El Salvador), .gt (Guatemala), .hn (Honduras), .mx (Mexico), .ni (Nicaragua), .pa (Panama), .py (Paraguay), .pe (Peru), .do (Dominican Republic), .uy (Uruguay), and .ve (Venezuela).

The websites selected for tracking were grouped into four main categories, defined by their institutional nature, origin, and educational purpose. These categories were:

• Government education portals: Official websites of Ministries of Education and other state agencies in Spanish-speaking Latin American countries. These were identified through domains using the extensions .gob and national variants such as .gov, .go, or .gub, followed by the corresponding country code. These portals typically host official educational content, curricula, digital repositories, and open training programs promoted by public institutions.

• Open educational content platforms: This category includes websites managed by nonprofit organizations, universities, academic networks, and multilateral initiatives that offer educational resources in open formats. These were located through domains such as .org, .net, and .edu, and encompass both platforms specialized in open education and university repositories that include didactic materials, digital books, learning objects, and publicly accessible courses.

• Personal blogs and teachers’ websites: These are spaces developed and managed by individual educators or pedagogical collectives who openly share educational materials, teaching experiences, and reusable resources. Such websites represent a valuable source of emerging OER and collaboratively created content.

• Repositories, educational observatories, and national digital libraries: Platforms managed by public or private entities that aim to collect, systematize, and disseminate educational resources, research outputs, official documents, and training materials. They function as regional or national reference centers and provide free access to a wide range of content aimed at improving educational quality and promoting open knowledge.

3.2. Key Terms Used in Search Strings

Given that a significant portion of OER available online is not explicitly labeled as such, a set of key terms was defined to enhance the sensitivity of the search algorithms. These terms were selected based on their frequency in prior studies on digital education, open access, and OER, as well as their common usage in educational platforms across Latin America.

The terms were organized into two levels:

These expressions were directly integrated into the search strings implemented in Python using Selenium, as well as in the Netpeak Spider and Netpeak Checker tracking tools. Combined with country-specific domains and website categories, they enabled the construction of robust filters for an effective and representative automated exploration of the regional landscape. Table 1 provides a summary of the elements used to construct the search strings for each of the analyzed categories.

3.3. Data Collection and Analysis Process

The data collection process combined automated tracking tools, Python programming, and expert consultation to build a representative database of OER in Latin America. The workflow was organized into four main phases: a) Automated data collection using Netpeak Spider, b) Complementary scraping with Python and Selenium, c) Corpus expansion through expert consultation, and d) Consolidation and analysis of results.

3.3.4. Data Consolidation and Analysis

All data collected—via Netpeak Spider, Python scripts, and expert recommendations—were integrated into a unified Excel database. At this stage, duplicate entries were removed, links were manually validated, and final classifications were made based on country, website type, and resource nature.

The final corpus consisted of 1,302 unique URLs, which were manually reviewed to ensure their relevance. Only those resources clearly developed or managed within Spanish-speaking Latin American countries were retained; foreign, duplicate, or non-open access initiatives were excluded. After applying these filters and inclusion criteria, a total of 210 mapped websites were consolidated and used for the qualitative and quantitative analysis of Open Educational Resources in the region. The complete process of data collection, cleaning, and analysis is visually summarized in Figure 2, which outlines each methodological stage.

Figure 2

To gain a comprehensive understanding of the landscape of OER identified in Latin America, an analytical protocol was designed based on nine research questions. These questions guided the examination of both the structural characteristics of the resources and the institutional and policy contexts in which they are embedded, including their alignment with international frameworks on open education. Table 2 summarizes the research questions that structured the analysis of the 211 mapped websites.

Table 2

Research Questions Used for the Analysis of OER.

NUMBER	RESEARCH QUESTION
1.	How many OER were identified, and what types of websites host them?
2.	In which countries are the OER-hosting websites or initiatives based?
3.	What types of institutions or entities are responsible for these initiatives?
4.	Are the resources explicitly labeled as OER on the hosting websites?
5.	What types of Creative Commons open licenses are used?
6.	What educational levels are the resources intended to serve?
7.	What subjects or areas of knowledge do the OER cover?
8.	What types of open educational resources are distributed through the identified websites?
9.	To what extent are these OER initiatives aligned with the five strategic objectives set forth in UNESCO’s 2019 Recommendation on OER?

This analytical framework enabled a descriptive characterization of the resources and an assessment of their potential contribution to the development of open education policies—both at the regional level and in alignment with UNESCO’s global commitments. The processed data were subsequently uploaded to Tableau software, where graphical visualizations and analytical figures were created to clearly and systematically represent the findings according to the research questions posed (see Table 2).

Q1. How many OER were identified, and what types of websites host them?

Of the 210 mapped websites in Spanish-speaking Latin American countries, the vast majority are repositories (n = 193; 91.9%), indicating a strong emphasis on strategies centered around the storage, classification, and structured dissemination of digital resources. These repositories are typically affiliated with universities or educational institutions that promote open access to academic and didactic knowledge.

In contrast, other modes of OER distribution show a significantly lower presence. Only 7 educational platforms (3.33%) were identified that offer structured resources under open learning models, along with 6 blogs (2.86%) that openly share educational materials. Additionally, just 4 educational observatories (1.90%) were found, focused on the collection and visualization of educational data, with specific sections that include OER or related resources.

These findings suggest that, while the OER ecosystem in the region is diverse, it remains heavily concentrated in institutional repository environments. This may offer advantages in terms of organization and preservation but also poses potential limitations regarding public accessibility and visibility (see Table 3).

Table 3

Q2. In which countries are the OER-hosting websites or initiatives based?

The geographical analysis of the 210 mapped websites reveals a high concentration of initiatives in three countries, reflecting significant disparities in the production and visibility of OER across the region. The country with the highest representation is Mexico, with 58 websites (27.62%), followed by Colombia with 41 websites (19.52%), and Peru with 33 websites (15.71%). Together, these three countries account for 62.85% of all identified sites, suggesting a more consolidated infrastructure for publishing open educational resources in these nations.

Other countries with notable participation include Argentina (n = 27; 12.86%) and Ecuador (n = 19; 9.05%). In contrast, countries such as Chile (n = 7; 3.33%), Costa Rica (n = 6; 2.86%), Uruguay and the Dominican Republic (n = 3 each; 1.43%), as well as Panama and Bolivia (n = 2 each; 0.95%), show more limited activity. Finally, a minimal number of websites were identified in Cuba, Guatemala, Nicaragua, El Salvador, and Venezuela, with only one site recorded per country (0.48% each), suggesting a lower degree of development or public visibility of OER initiatives in these contexts (see Figure 3).

Figure 3

Q3. What types of institutions or entities are responsible for these initiatives?

The analysis of the 210 websites hosting Open Educational Resources enabled the identification of the types of entities responsible for their development, maintenance, or dissemination. The results indicate that universities are the primary institutional actors, accounting for 60.48% of the mapped initiatives (n = 127). This finding reinforces the role of higher education institutions as key agents in the production and publication of OER, particularly through their institutional repositories. Government entities ranked second (n = 60; 28.57%), indicating significant involvement from the public sector in promoting open educational resources—whether through Ministries of Education, national agencies, or state bodies responsible for digital platforms.

A smaller number of initiatives originated from public non-governmental organizations (n = 9; 4.29%) and independent projects with no formal institutional affiliation (n = 9; 4.29%). Lastly, five websites (2.38%) were developed by private foundations, most of which were socially or community-driven initiatives funded through international cooperation or educational philanthropy. These data suggest that, although OER initiatives exist across a range of sectors, the Latin American OER ecosystem remains strongly rooted in universities and the state (see Figure 4).

Figure 4

Q4. Are the resources explicitly labeled as OER on the hosting websites?

One of the aspects analyzed was the degree to which the identified websites explicitly define themselves as OER providers. The results indicate that only 25 out of the 210 websites (11.90%) include an explicit reference to OER in their institutional descriptions, access policies, or content overviews. In contrast, the overwhelming majority of sites (n = 185; 88.10%) do not explicitly present themselves as OER, despite offering content that aligns with core OER principles such as free access, educational reuse, and availability without technical restrictions. This finding reveals a significant gap between practice and formal recognition, as many open resources are not terminologically aligned with international OER classifications—limiting their visibility, interoperability, and systematic use (see Figure 5).

Figure 5

Q5. What types of Creative Commons open licenses are used?

The openness of an educational resource depends not only on its online availability but also on the presence of clear usage conditions that enable its reuse, adaptation, and redistribution. In this regard, the study examined whether the mapped websites specified any type of license, with particular attention to those defined by the Creative Commons (CC) framework, which is widely recognized within the OER domain. The results show that the majority of websites (n = 137; 65.24%) do not specify any license, which constitutes a significant barrier to the responsible use of resources. The absence of licensing information creates legal ambiguity, restricts the formal reuse of materials, and undermines the notion of educational openness—even when the content is freely accessible.

Among the websites that do declare a license, six variants of Creative Commons were observed. The most common was CC BY-NC-ND (Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives), used by 32 websites (15.24%), reflecting a preference to prevent both commercial use and modification of the materials. This was followed by CC BY (Attribution) with 23 websites (10.95%), considered the most open license as it permits all types of reuse as long as proper credit is given to the author. Other licenses reported included CC BY-NC-SA (Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike), found on 13 websites (6.19%). Less frequently used licenses were CC BY-SA (Attribution-ShareAlike) and CC0 (Public Domain), each present on 2 websites (0.95%). Finally, CC BY-NC (Attribution-NonCommercial) appeared in only one case (0.48%), and CC BY-ND (Attribution-NoDerivatives) was not identified in any of the analyzed websites. This landscape confirms that, although some initiatives adopt open licensing, there remains a strong tendency either to omit licensing altogether or to use restrictive licenses—both of which limit users’ ability to adapt, remix, or redistribute the materials (see Figure 6).

Figure 6

Q6. What educational levels are the resources intended to serve?

To address this question, the 210 websites comprising the analysis corpus were classified according to the educational level targeted by their resources, following the international framework proposed by UNESCO (2013). When examining the degree of specialization by educational level, it was found that only 34 websites (16.19%) are exclusively focused on a single level. Within this category, 2 websites (0.95%) focus solely on primary or basic education, 5 websites (2.38%) on secondary education, 10 websites (4.76%) on undergraduate higher education, 5 websites (2.38%) on graduate/postgraduate education, and 12 websites (5.71%) on non-formal education. Notably, no websites were exclusively focused on early childhood education, highlighting a clear underrepresentation of this level within the mapped OER ecosystem.

In contrast, the majority of websites (176 websites, representing 83.81%) offer resources aimed at more than one educational level, with common combinations including undergraduate and postgraduate education, as well as primary and secondary education. This multi-level orientation often reflects the institutional nature of university repositories or platforms that encompass diverse educational programs.

Based on this cross-level approach, a total of 427 educational level mentions were recorded across the 210 analyzed websites. The most represented levels were undergraduate higher education (n = 157; 36.77%) and graduate/postgraduate education (n = 141; 33.02%), followed by secondary education (n = 43; 10.07%), primary or basic education (n = 39; 9.13%), non-formal education (n = 24; 5.62%), and early childhood education (n = 23; 5.39%). These results reveal a strong concentration of OER in the higher education sector, while early educational levels remain significantly underrepresented in the current regional landscape (see Figure 7).

Figure 7

Q7. What subjects or areas of knowledge do the OER cover?

The thematic categorization of websites hosting OER reveals a broad scope, though markedly concentrated in general-purpose content. A total of 68.10% of the sites (n = 143) fall under the category of “Various Educational Topics,” which includes platforms offering materials across multiple disciplines or not limited to a specific area of knowledge. These resources are typically organized transversally and serve broad educational purposes, such as teaching support, basic education, or digital literacy training. Among the specific subject areas, “Education and Pedagogy” stands out, present in 21 websites (10.00%), comprising content related to teaching practices, teacher training, instructional innovation, and learning assessment. This area represents a recurring theme across OER initiatives.

Other noteworthy categories, although less frequently represented, include “Social Sciences and Humanities” and “Data and Academic Resources,” each found in 9 websites (4.29%). These are followed by “Science, Technology, and Innovation” and “Health and Well-being,” each represented in 8 websites (3.81%), indicating an emerging interest in opening resources within these disciplines. Additionally, content related to productive sectors and the economy was identified in 6 websites (2.86%), environment and sustainability in 4 websites (1.90%), and, to a lesser extent, arts and culture in 2 websites (0.95%). In summary, the results show a notable diversity in thematic content. However, the strong concentration in general-purpose resources suggests a need to strengthen the production of OER in underrepresented areas such as the environment, productive sectors, and cultural expressions (see Figure 8).

Figure 8

Q8. What types of open educational resources are distributed through the identified websites?

To characterize the nature of the available content, the OER were classified according to their predominant distribution format across the mapped websites. A total of 349 resource formats were recorded among the 210 analyzed websites, indicating that some platforms offer multiple types of resources simultaneously. It is worth noting that although all the sites were considered OER providers, six websites only present online information in text format without the option to download, thereby limiting the reusability of their content. Consequently, these cases were not included in any of the described resource types.

Among the classified resources, the most frequent format was PDF, with 198 entries (56.73%). This predominance suggests a strong focus on publishing static materials—such as manuals, guides, or textbooks—which, although accessible, offer limited opportunities for editing and adaptation due to technical constraints. Visual resources in image format ranked second, with 83 entries (23.78%), followed by video-based resources, with 62 appearances (17.77%). These formats reinforce the multimedia potential of OER, although their actual degree of openness depends on factors such as licensing terms and download availability. Finally, only six resources (1.72%) were identified in editable formats, such as Word, Excel, or PowerPoint files, reflecting a low availability of materials that support true reusability and local adaptation (see Figure 9).

Figure 9

Q9. To what extent are these OER initiatives aligned with the five strategic objectives set forth in UNESCO’s 2019 Recommendation on OER?

As part of the qualitative analysis of the identified corpus, the alignment of the mapped websites with the five strategic areas outlined in UNESCO’s 2019 Recommendation on Open Educational Resources was evaluated. The analysis reveals a strong concentration of initiatives aligned with the third strategic area, focused on ensuring inclusive, equitable, and effective access to quality educational resources. A total of 185 websites (92.80%) demonstrated this alignment through open access policies, the use of accessible technologies, and the provision of materials in multiple formats or languages.

In second place, 16 websites (5.26%) reflected an orientation toward capacity building, aligned with UNESCO’s first strategic objective, by promoting the development of digital and pedagogical skills for the creation, adaptation, and use of OER. Conversely, only 4 websites (1.10%) displayed actions related to the institutional, financial, or technical sustainability of OER—such as models that ensure their maintenance, continuous updating, or integration into permanent structures.

Finally, 5 websites (0.84%) contributed to the promotion of international cooperation, either through participation in regional OER networks or by publishing multilingual content with a cross-border scope. It is important to note that none of the analyzed initiatives showed explicit alignment with the second strategic objective related to the development of supportive public policies, highlighting a potential gap in the institutionalization of open access frameworks across the region (see Figure 10).

Figure 10