Table 1
Efficacy of the proposed actions to cope with the crisis. Factorial solution after varimax rotation. Percentage of explained variance and values of Cronbach’s alpha.
| F1 16.53% | F2 12.07% | F3 11.36% | F4 10.75% | F5 6.91% | F6 5.29% | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Violence (α = .90) | ||||||
| Physical assault on politicians | .82 | –.05 | .08 | .19 | .14 | .05 |
| Placing incendiary devices in public buildings | .81 | .02 | .11 | –.01 | .01 | .07 |
| Burning politicians’ cars | .78 | –.04 | .18 | .16 | .20 | .07 |
| Destroying public property | .73 | .10 | .07 | .08 | .12 | –.05 |
| Publication of texts on the internet approving acts of political violence | .64 | .05 | .11 | .37 | –.05 | .11 |
| Throwing eggs and yogurt at politicians | .62 | –.04 | .26 | .16 | .25 | .04 |
| Attacking anti-riot police forces during demonstrations | .58 | .15 | .05 | .51 | .08 | –.01 |
| Publication of texts on the internet inciting public disobedience | .56 | .08 | .29 | .50 | –.05 | .12 |
| Civic participation (α = .83) | ||||||
| Acting through participation in unions | .04 | .77 | .24 | .15 | –.00 | .00 |
| Acting through participation in political parties | –.07 | .74 | –.06 | –.14 | .02 | .13 |
| Acting through participation in NGOs | –.08 | .73 | .14 | .07 | .10 | .06 |
| Participating in popular assemblies in neighbourhoods | .07 | .71 | .24 | .27 | –.05 | .13 |
| Sending political e-mails | .17 | .67 | .20 | .06 | .10 | .02 |
| Constructing a website/blog | .07 | .57 | .36 | .06 | .04 | –.15 |
| Political resistance to government measures (α = .85) | ||||||
| Striking | .09 | .27 | .73 | .14 | .01 | .02 |
| Blocking roads, ports and airports | .29 | .11 | .64 | .25 | .04 | –.01 |
| Occupation of public buildings and ministries | .34 | .12 | .62 | .35 | .01 | .02 |
| Participation in public demonstrations against austerity measures | .11 | .29 | .61 | .27 | .07 | .23 |
| Participating in rallies of Indignant Citizens | .19 | .39 | .61 | .20 | .05 | .08 |
| Signing a petition | .05 | .47 | .61 | –.08 | .18 | –.12 |
| Economic resistance to government measures (α = .84) | ||||||
| Refusal to pay any new taxes | .21 | .10 | .38 | .71 | .22 | .12 |
| Refusal to pay tolls | .20 | .08 | .40 | .70 | .23 | .13 |
| Illegally reconnecting power to those that could not pay electricity bills | .47 | .06 | .23 | .59 | –.10 | .15 |
| Collectively withdrawing all money from banks | .23 | .07 | .12 | .56 | .38 | –.09 |
| Stealing food from supermarkets and distributing it to the poor | .53 | .12 | .09 | .53 | –.02 | .04 |
| Individual financial protection (α = .66) | ||||||
| Taking one’s savings out of the country to foreign banks to protect them | .11 | .07 | –.03 | .16 | .78 | .05 |
| Emigrating to a prosperous country to find a job | .04 | –.02 | .20 | –.07 | .73 | .14 |
| Keeping money at home to be able to cope with tough moments | .17 | .13 | –.01 | .16 | .67 | .04 |
| Protectionism (α = .66) | ||||||
| Buying only national products | –.01 | .10 | –.03 | –.04 | .15 | .88 |
| Boycotting foreign products | .21 | .05 | .13 | .22 | .07 | .74 |
Table 2
Means, standard deviations and Pearson’s r correlations between the perceived efficacy of the six types of actions and the willingness to participate in them.
| r | M (SD) Efficacy | M (SD) Participation | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Protectionism | .80*** | 4.29 (1.68) | 4.15 (1.92) |
| Civic participation | .74*** | 3.85 (1.34) | 3.19 (1.57) |
| Political resistance to government measures | .84*** | 3.63 (1.45) | 3.24 (1.60) |
| Individual financial protection | .72*** | 3.58 (1.42) | 3.53 (1.56) |
| Economic resistance to government measures | .83*** | 3.06 (1.55) | 2.71 (1.57) |
| Violence | .87*** | 2.03 (1.25) | 1.79 (1.15) |
[i] ***: p < .001.
Table 3
Efficacy of the six types of actions depending on countries. Means and standard deviations (in parentheses).
| Greece | Portugal | Italy | F | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Protectionism | 4.94a (1.62) | 4.33b (1.57) | 3.67c (1.63) | 22.89*** |
| Civic participation | 4.05 (1.09) | 3.80 (1.55) | 3.73 (1.30) | 2.16 |
| Political resistance to government measures | 4.28a (1.30) | 3.35b (1.46) | 3.35b (1.38) | 21.15*** |
| Individual financial protection | 3.62ab (1.43) | 3.81a (1.43) | 3.30b (1.37) | 5.28** |
| Economic resistance to government measures | 4.22a (1.40) | 2.62b (1.32) | 2.52b (1.37) | 68.78*** |
| Violence | 2.77a (1.32) | 1.69b (1.00) | 1.76b (1.15) | 38.20*** |
[i] ***: p < .001; **: p < .01.
[ii] Different letters on different lines indicate significantly different means.
Table 4
Crisis-related and individual-related variables depending on countries. Means and standard deviations (in parentheses).
| Greece | Portugal | Italy | F | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Crisis-related variables | ||||
| Attribution to people in general | 3.67a (1.23) | 3.68a (1.16) | 2.99b (1.14) | 16.88*** |
| Attribution to external factors | 5.13a (0.97) | 5.14a (0.95) | 4.65b (0.93) | 13.24*** |
| Attribution to internal factors | 5.57a (0.79) | 5.37a (0.89) | 4.81b (1.01) | 27.71*** |
| Attribution to financial organizations | 5.78 (1.03) | 5.68 (0.98) | 5.62 (1.16) | 0.86 |
| Date for the crisis to come to an end | 5.78a (1.31) | 4.60b (1.69) | 4.19c (1.48) | 41.50*** |
| Individual-related variables | ||||
| Political orientation (left-right) | 4.30b (2.15) | 5.17a (1.99) | 5.16a (2.30) | 5.55** |
| Feelings of depression | 2.58ab (0.82) | 2.45b (0.97) | 2.80a (1.02) | 5.36** |
[i] ***: p < .001; **: p < .01.
[ii] Different letters on different lines indicate significantly different means.
Table 5
Societal, crisis-related, and individual-related variables as predictors of perceived efficacy of actions.
| Protectionism | Civic participation | Political resistance to government measures | Individual financial protection | Economic resistance to govern-ment measures | Violence | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Societal variables (reference least affected country)† | ||||||
| More affected | +.13* | +.12 | +.03 | +.09 | +.06 | –.04 |
| Most affected | +.27*** | +.08 | +.18** | –.08 | +.39*** | +.21*** |
| Crisis-related variables | ||||||
| Attribution to people in general | +.03 | –.16* | –.29*** | –.04 | –.14* | +.03 |
| Attribution to external factors | +.12 | –.02 | +.11 | +.05 | +.08 | +.09 |
| Attribution to internal factors | +.14* | +.07 | +.16** | +.28*** | +.21*** | –.03 |
| Attribution to financial organizations | +.05 | +.09 | +.04 | –.01 | +.04 | +.00 |
| Date for the crisis to come to an end | –.05 | +.02 | +.03 | +.09 | +.01 | +.12* |
| Individual-related variables | ||||||
| Political orientation (left-right) | +.15* | –.11 | –.19*** | +.04 | –.20*** | –.15** |
| Feelings of depression | +.10 | +.11 | +.16** | +.13* | +.21*** | +.23*** |
| Sex (reference male) | –.00 | +.07 | –.06 | –.16** | –.08 | –.23*** |
[i] ***: p < .001; **: p < .01; *: p < .05.
[ii] †Countries were represented as two dummy variables with Italy, the least affected country, serving as the reference group. Portugal (vs. Greece and Italy) is a more strongly affected country and Greece (vs. Italy and Portugal) the most strongly affected.