References
- 1Abrams, D., Randsley de Moura, G., & Travaglino, G. A. (2013). A double standard when group members behave badly: Transgression credit to ingroup leaders. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 105(5), 799–815. DOI: 10.1037/a0033600
- 2Alexander, D., & Andersen, K. (1993). Gender as a factor in the attribution of leadership traits. Political Research Quarterly, 46, 527–545. DOI: 10.1177/106591299304600305
- 3Allern, S., & Pollack, E. (2012).
Mediated scandals . In S. Allern & E. Pollack (Eds.), Scandalous: The mediated construction of political scandals in four nordic countries (pp. 9–28). Göteborg: Nordicom. - 4Barisione, M. (2009). So, what difference do leaders make? Candidates’ images and the “conditionality” of leader effects on voting. Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties, 19, 473–500. DOI: 10.1080/17457280903074219
- 5Bauer, N. M. (2017). The effects of counterstereotypic gender strategies on candidate evaluations. Political Psychology, 38, 279–295. DOI: 10.1111/pops.12351
- 6Bauer, N. M. (2018). Untangling the relationship between partisanship, gender stereotypes, and support for female candidates. Journal of Women, Politics & Policy, 39, 1–25. DOI: 10.1080/1554477X.2016.1268875
- 7Bauer, N. M., & Carpinella, C. (2018). Visual information and candidate evaluations: The influence of feminine and masculine images on support for female candidates. Political Research Quarterly, 71, 395–407. DOI: 10.1177/1065912917738579
- 8Bauer, N. M., Harbridge, L., & Krupnikov, Y. (2017). Who is punished? How voters evaluate male and female legislators who do not compromise. Political Behavior, 39, 379–400. DOI: 10.1007/s11109-016-9356-6
- 9Benoit, W. L. (1997). Image repair discourse and crisis communication. Public Relations Review, 23, 177–186. DOI: 10.1016/S0363-8111(97)90023-0
- 10Benoit, W. L., & Brinson, S. L. (1999). Queen Elizabeth’s image repair discourse: Insensitive royal or compassionate queen? Public Relations Review, 25, 145–156. DOI: 10.1016/S0363-8111(99)80159-3
- 11Benoit, W. L., & Drew, S. (1997). Appropriateness and effectiveness of image repair strategies. Communication Reports, 10, 153–163. DOI: 10.1080/08934219709367671
- 12Bertolotti, M., Catellani, P., Douglas, K. M., & Sutton, R. M. (2013). The “Big Two” in political communication. Social Psychology, 44, 117–128. DOI: 10.1027/1864-9335/a000141
- 13Bless, H., Igou, E. R., Schwarz, N., & Wänke, M. (2000). Reducing context effects by adding context information: The direction and size of context effects in political judgment. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 1036–1045. DOI: 10.1177/01461672002611002
- 14Bowler, S., & Karp, J. A. (2004). Politicians, scandals, and trust in government. Political Behavior, 26, 271–287. DOI: 10.1023/B:POBE.0000043456.87303.3a
- 15Brambilla, M., Rusconi, P., Sacchi, S., & Cherubini, P. (2011). Looking for honesty: The primary role of morality (vs. sociability and competence) in information gathering. European Journal of Social Psychology, 41, 135–143. DOI: 10.1002/ejsp.744
- 16Brenton, S. (2011). When the personal becomes political: Mitigating damage following scandals. Current Research in Social Psychology, 18(4), 1–13.
- 17Brooks, D. J. (2013).
He runs, she runs: Why gender stereotypes do not harm women candidates . Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. DOI: 10.1515/9781400846191 - 18Bull, P., & Fetzer, A. (2010). Face, facework and political discourse. Revue Internationale de Psychologie Sociale, 23, 155–185.
- 19Carlson, J., Ganiel, G., & Hyde, M. S. (2000). Scandal and political candidate image. Southeastern Political Review, 28, 747–757. DOI: 10.1111/j.1747-1346.2000.tb00798.x
- 20Caprara, G. V., Schwartz, S., Capanna, C., Vecchione, M., & Barbaranelli, C. (2006). Personality and politics: Values, traits, and political choice. Political Psychology, 27, 1–28. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9221.2006.00447.x
- 21Cassese, E. C., & Holman, M. R. (2018). Party and gender stereotypes in campaign attacks. Political Behavior, 40, 785–805. DOI: 10.1007/s11109-017-9423-7
- 22Cavazza, N., & Pacilli, M. G. (2021). Is politics still a masculine thing? Stereotypical male description activates the prototype of the politically committed individual worthy of a vote. Sexuality & Culture, 1–20. DOI: 10.1007/s12119-020-09810-9
- 23Chanley, V., Sullivan, J. L., Gonzales, M. H., & Kovera, M. B. (1994). Lust and avarice in politics: Damage control by four politicians accused of wrongdoing (or, politics as usual). American Politics Quarterly, 22, 297–333. DOI: 10.1177/1532673X9402200303
- 24Cislak, A., & Wojciszke, B. (2008). Agency and communion are inferred from actions serving interests of self or others. European Journal of Social Psychology, 38, 1103–1110. DOI: 10.1002/ejsp.554
- 25Coombs, W. T. (1995). Choosing the right words: The development of guidelines for the selection of the “appropriate” crisis response strategies. Management Communication Quarterly, 8, 447–476. DOI: 10.1177/0893318995008004003
- 26Coombs, W. T. (2006). The protective powers of crisis response strategies: Managing reputational assets during a crisis. Journal of Promotion Management, 12(3–4), 241–260. DOI: 10.1177/0893318995008004003
- 27Coombs, W. T. (2007). Protecting organization reputations during a crisis: The development and application of situational crisis communication theory. Corporate Reputation Review, 10, 163–176. DOI: 10.1300/J057v12n03_13
- 28Craig, S. C., & Rippere, P. S. (2016). He said, she said: The impact of candidate gender in negative campaigns. Politics & Gender, 12, 391–414. DOI: 10.1057/palgrave.crr.1550049
- 29Courtemanche, M., & Connor Green, J. (2020). A fall from grace: Women, scandals, and perceptions of politicians. Journal of Women, Politics & Policy, 1–22. DOI: 10.1017/S1743923X15000550
- 30Cucchi, S., & Cavazza, N. (2017). Scandali politici e opinione pubblica: Impatto e strategie di ripristino della reputazione. Giornale Italiano di Psicologia, 44, 727–760. DOI: 10.1080/1554477X.2020.1723055
- 31Cucchi, S., & Cavazza, N. (2020). More guilty if woman: The role of gender and causal attribution in political scandals’ impact. The Journal of Social Psychology. DOI: 10.1080/00224545.2020.1779641
- 32Doherty, D., Dowling, C. M., & Miller, M. G. (2011). Are financial or moral scandals worse? It depends. PS: Political Science, Politics, 44, 749–757. DOI: 10.1017/S1049096511001247
- 33Dolan, K. (2010). The impact of gender stereotyped evaluations on support for women candidates. Political Behavior, 32, 69–88. DOI: 10.1007/s11109-009-9090-4
- 34Eagly, A. H. (1987).
Sex differences . In Social behavior: A social-role interpretation. Psychology Press. - 35Eagly, A. H., & Steffen, V. J. (1984). Gender stereotypes stem from the distribution of women and men into social roles. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46(4), 735–754. DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.46.4.735
- 36Funk, C. L. (1996). The impact of scandal on candidate evaluations: An experimental test of the role of candidate traits. Political Behavior, 18, 1–24. DOI: 10.1007/BF01498658
- 37Garzia, D., & Viotti, F. (2012). Leader, identità di partito e voto in Italia, 1990–2008. Rivista Italiana di Scienza Politica, 41(3), 411–432. DOI: 10.1426/36013
- 38Gawronski, B., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2011).
The associative propositional evaluation model: Theory, evidence, and open questions . In M. P. Zanna & J. M. Olson (Eds.), Advances in experimental social psychology, 44, 59–127. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-385522-0.00002-0 - 39Gonzales, M. H., Kovera, M. B., Sullivan, J. L., & Chanley, V. (1995). Private reactions to public transgressions: Predictors of evaluative responses to allegations of political misconduct. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 136–148. DOI: 10.1177/0146167295212004
- 40Halmburger, A., Baumert, A., & Rothmund, T. (2019). Seen one, seen ’em all? Do reports about law violations of a single politician impair the perceived trustworthiness of politicians in general and of the political system? Journal of Social and Political Psychology, 7, 448–477. DOI: 10.5964/jspp.v7i1.933
- 41Harris, P., Lock, A., Davies, G., & Mian, T. (2010). The reputation of the party leader and of the party being led. European Journal of Marketing, 44, 331–350. DOI: 10.1108/03090561011020453
- 42Herrnson, P. S., Lay, J. C., & Stokes, A. K. (2003). Women running “as women”: Candidate gender, campaign issues, and voter-targeting strategies. The Journal of Politics, 65, 244–255. DOI: 10.1111/1468-2508.t01-1-00013
- 43Hitchon, J. C., & Chang, C. (1995). Effects of gender schematic processing on the reception of political commercials for men and women candidates. Communication Research, 22, 430–458. DOI: 10.1177/009365095022004003
- 44Hitchon, J. C., Chang, C., & Harris, R. (1997). Should women emote? Perceptual bias and opinion change in response to political ads for candidates of different genders. Political Communication, 14, 49–69. DOI: 10.1080/105846097199533
- 45Huddy, L., & Capelos, T. (2002).
Gender stereotyping and candidate evaluation . In V. C. Ottati, R. S. Tindale, J. Edwards, F. B. Bryant, L. Health, D. C. O’Connell, Y. Suarez-Balzacar & E. J. Posavac (Eds.), The social psychology of politics (pp. 29–53). New York: Springer. DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4615-0569-3_2 - 46Huddy, L., & Terkildsen, N. (1993). Gender stereotypes and the perception of male and female candidates. American Journal of Political Science, 37, 119–147. DOI: 10.2307/2111526
- 47Kahn, K. F. (1994). Does gender make a difference? An experimental examination of sex stereotypes and press patterns in statewide campaigns. American Journal of Political Science, 38, 162–195. DOI: 10.2307/2111340
- 48Kepplinger, H. M., Geiss, S., & Siebert, S. (2012). Framing scandals: Cognitive and emotional media effects. Journal of Communication, 62, 659–681. DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-2466.2012.01653.x
- 49Kim, P. H., Ferrin, D. L., Cooper, C. D., & Dirks, K. T. (2004). Removing the shadow of suspicion: the effects of apology versus denial for repairing competence-versus integrity-based trust violations. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 89, 104–118. DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.89.1.104
- 50King, D., & Matland, R. (2003). Sex and the grand old party: An experimental investigation of the effect of candidate sex on support for a Republican candidate. American Politics Research, 31, 595–612. DOI: 10.1177/1532673X03255286
- 51Koch, J. W. (1999). Candidate gender and assessments of senate candidates. Social Science Quarterly, 80, 84–97.
www.jstor.org/stable/42863875 - 52Krupnikov, Y., & Bauer, N. (2014). The relationship between campaign negativity, gender and campaign context. Political Behavior, 36, 167–88. DOI: 10.1007/s11109-013-9221-9
- 53Leeper, M. S. (1991). The impact of prejudice on female candidates: An experimental look at voter inference. American Politics Quarterly, 19, 248–261. DOI: 10.1177/1532673X9101900206
- 54Maier, J. (2011). The impact of political scandals on political support: An experimental test of two theories. International Political Science Review, 32, 283–302. DOI: 10.1177/0192512110378056
- 55Matland, R. E. (1994). Putting Scandinavian equality to the test: An experimental evaluation of gender stereotyping of political candidates in a sample of Norwegian voters. British Journal of Political Science, 24, 273–292. DOI: 10.1017/S0007123400009819
- 56McGraw, K. M. (2001).
Political accounts and attribution processes . In J. Kuklinski (Ed.), Citizens and politics: Perspectives from political psychology (pp. 160–197). New York: Cambridge University Press. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511896941.009 - 57OECD. (2021). Women in politics (indicator). (Accessed on 19 January 2021). DOI: 10.1787/edc3ff4f-en
- 58Pereira, F. B. (2020). Do female politicians face stronger backlash for corruption allegations? Evidence from survey-experiments in Brazil and Mexico. Political Behavior, 1–20. DOI: 10.1007/s11109-020-09602-9
- 59Phelan, J. E., & Rudman, L. A. (2010). Prejudice toward female leaders: Backlash effects and women’s impression management dilemma. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 4(10), 807–820. DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00306.x
- 60Pollack, E., Allern, S., Kantola, A., & Ørsten, M. (2018). The new normal: Scandals as a standard feature of political life in nordic countries. International Journal of Communication, 12, 3087–3108.
https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/7099/2417 - 61Rosenwasser, S. M., & Seale, J. (1988). Attitudes toward a hypothetical male or female presidential candidate: A research note. Political Psychology, 9, 591–598. DOI: 10.2307/3791529
- 62Rudman, L. A., & Fairchild, K. (2004). Reactions to counterstereotypic behavior: The role of backlash in cultural stereotype maintenance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 157–176. DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.87.2.157
- 63Rudman, L. A., Moss-Racusin, C. A., Glick, P., & Phelan, J. E. (2012).
Reactions to vanguards: Advances in backlash theory . In Advances in experimental social psychology, 45, 167–227. Academic Press. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-394286-9.00004-4 - 64Rudman, L. A., Moss-Racusin, C. A., Phelan, J. E., & Nauts, S. (2012). Status incongruity and backlash effects: Defending the gender hierarchy motivates prejudice against female leaders. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48(1), 165–179. DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2011.10.008
- 65Russo, S. (2017). The subjective group dynamics in negative campaigns. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 47, 415–423. DOI: 10.1111/jasp.12447
- 66Sanbonmatsu, K. (2003). Political knowledge and gender stereotypes. American Politics Research, 31, 575–594. DOI: 10.1177/1532673X03255167
- 67Sapiro, V. (1981). If US Senator Baker were a woman: An experimental study of candidate images. Political Psychology, 3, 61–83. DOI: 10.2307/3791285
- 68Schneider, M. C., & Bos, A. L. (2014). Measuring stereotypes of female politicians. Political Psychology, 35, 245–266. DOI: 10.1111/pops.12040
- 69Schoen, H., & Schumann, S. (2007). Personality traits, partisan attitudes, and voting behavior. Evidence from Germany. Political Psychology, 28, 471–498. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9221.2007.00582.x
- 70Smith, E. S., Smith Powers, A., & Suarez, G. A. (2005). If Bill Clinton were a woman: The effectiveness of male and female politicians’ account strategies following alleged transgressions. Political Psychology, 26, 115–134. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9221.2005.00411.x
- 71Stewart, D. D., Rose, R. P., Rosales, F. M., Rudney, P. D., Lehner, T. A., Miltich, G., Snyder, C., & Sadecki, B. (2013). The value of outside support for male and female politicians involved in a political sex scandal. The Journal of Social Psychology, 153, 375–394. DOI: 10.1080/00224545.2012.744292
- 72Thompson, J. B. (2000).
Political scandal: Power and visibility in the media age . Cambridge: Polity.
