References
- Vaduganathan M, Mensah GA, Turco JV, Fuster V, Roth GA. The global burden of cardiovascular diseases and risk: A compass for future health. Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 2022;80(25):2361–2371. DOI: 10.1016/j.jacc.2022.11.005
- Li Y, Cao GY, Jing WZ, Liu J, Liu M. Global trends and regional differences in incidence and mortality of cardiovascular disease, 1990–2019: Findings from 2019 global burden of disease study. European Journal of Preventive Cardiology. 2023;30(3):276–286. DOI: 10.1093/eurjpc/zwac285
- Center For Cardiovascular Diseases The Writing Committee Of The Report On Cardiovascular H, Diseases In China N. Report on cardiovascular health and diseases in China 2023: An updated summary. Biomedical and Environmental Sciences. 2024;37(9):949–992. DOI: 10.3967/bes2024.162
- GBD 2017 Causes of Death Collaborators. Global, regional, and national age-sex-specific mortality for 282 causes of death in 195 countries and territories, 1980–2017: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017. Lancet. 2018;392(10159):1736–1788. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(18)32203-7
- Qiu J, Li J, Xu S, Zeng H, Zhang Y, Yang S, et al. Can cardiovascular health and its modifiable healthy lifestyle offset the increased risk of all-cause and cardiovascular deaths associated with insulin resistance? Cardiovascular Diabetology. 2025;24(1):
114 . DOI: 10.1186/s12933-025-02674-z - Li M, Chi X, Wang Y, Setrerrahmane S, Xie W, Xu H. Trends in insulin resistance: insights into mechanisms and therapeutic strategy. Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy. 2022;7(1):
216 . DOI: 10.1038/s41392-022-01073-0 - Tao S, Yu L, Li J, Wu J, Huang X, Xie Z, et al. Insulin resistance quantified by estimated glucose disposal rate predicts cardiovascular disease incidence: a nationwide prospective cohort study. Cardiovascular Diabetology. 2025;24(1):
161 . DOI: 10.1186/s12933-025-02672-1 - Lee M, Saver JL, Hong KS, Song S, Chang KH, Ovbiagele B. Effect of pre-diabetes on future risk of stroke: Meta-analysis. BMJ (Clinical Research Ed). 2012;344:
e3564 . DOI: 10.1136/bmj.e3564 - Sarwar N, Gao P, Seshasai SR, Gobin R, Kaptoge S, Di Angelantonio E, et al. Diabetes mellitus, fasting blood glucose concentration, and risk of vascular disease: a collaborative meta-analysis of 102 prospective studies. Lancet. 2010;375(9733):2215–2222. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60484-9
- Rebelos E, Honka MJ. PREDIM index: a useful tool for the application of the euglycemic hyperinsulinemic clamp. Journal of Endocrinological Investigation. 2021;44(3):631–634. DOI: 10.1007/s40618-020-01352-z
- Jiang L, Zhu T, Song W, Zhai Y, Tang Y, Ruan F, et al. Assessment of six insulin resistance surrogate indexes for predicting stroke incidence in Chinese middle-aged and elderly populations with abnormal glucose metabolism: A nationwide prospective cohort study. Cardiovascular Diabetology. 2025;24(1):
56 . DOI: 10.1186/s12933-025-02618-7 - Zhang H, Tu Z, Liu S, Wang J, Shi J, Li X, et al. Association of different insulin resistance surrogates with all-cause and cardiovascular mortality among the population with cardiometabolic multimorbidity. Cardiovascular Diabetology. 2025;24(1):
33 . DOI: 10.1186/s12933-025-02576-0 - Zhao E, Wang R, Chen Y, Xie H, Gao Y, Dong B, et al. Evaluation of a new TyG indicator, TyHGB, in predicting non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: evidence from two independent populations. Lipids in Health and Disease. 2025;24(1):
342 . DOI: 10.1186/s12944-025-02742-z - Yi J, Qu C, Li X, Gao H. Insulin resistance assessed by estimated glucose disposal rate and risk of atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases incidence: The multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis. Cardiovascular Diabetology. 2024;23(1):
349 . DOI: 10.1186/s12933-024-02437-2 - Bello-Chavolla OY, Almeda-Valdes P, Gomez-Velasco D, Viveros-Ruiz T, Cruz-Bautista I, Romo-Romo A, et al. METS-IR, a novel score to evaluate insulin sensitivity, is predictive of visceral adiposity and incident type 2 diabetes. European Journal of Endocrinology. 2018;178(5):533–544. DOI: 10.1530/EJE-17-0883
- Cui C, Qi Y, Song J, Shang X, Han T, Han N, et al. Comparison of triglyceride glucose index and modified triglyceride glucose indices in prediction of cardiovascular diseases in middle aged and older Chinese adults. Cardiovascular Diabetology. 2024;23(1):
185 . DOI: 10.1186/s12933-024-02278-z - Dong B, Chen Y, Yang X, Chen Z, Zhang H, Gao Y, et al. Estimated glucose disposal rate outperforms other insulin resistance surrogates in predicting incident cardiovascular diseases in cardiovascular-kidney-metabolic syndrome stages 0–3 and the development of a machine learning prediction model: A nationwide prospective cohort study. Cardiovascular Diabetology. 2025;24(1):
163 . DOI: 10.1186/s12933-025-02729-1 - Liu L, Peng J, Wang N, Wu Z, Zhang Y, Cui H, et al. Comparison of seven surrogate insulin resistance indexes for prediction of incident coronary heart disease risk: A 10-year prospective cohort study. Frontiers in Endocrinology. 2024;15:
1290226 . DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2024.1290226 - Park HM, Han T, Heo SJ, Kwon YJ. Effectiveness of the triglyceride-glucose index and triglyceride-glucose-related indices in predicting cardiovascular disease in middle-aged and older adults: A prospective cohort study. Journal of Clinical Lipidology. 2024;18(1):e70–e79. DOI: 10.1016/j.jacl.2023.11.006
- Li F, Wang Y, Shi B, Sun S, Wang S, Pang S, et al. Association between the cumulative average triglyceride glucose-body mass index and cardiovascular disease incidence among the middle-aged and older population: A prospective nationwide cohort study in China. Cardiovascular Diabetology. 2024;23(1):
16 . DOI: 10.1186/s12933-023-02114-w - Montalescot G, Sechtem U, Achenbach S, Andreotti F, Arden C, Budaj A, et al. 2013 ESC guidelines on the management of stable coronary artery disease: The Task Force on the management of stable coronary artery disease of the European Society of Cardiology. European Heart Journal. 2013;34(38):2949–3003. DOI: 10.1093/eurheartj/eht296
- Gao K, Cao LF, Ma WZ, Gao YJ, Luo MS, Zhu J, et al. Association between sarcopenia and cardiovascular disease among middle-aged and older adults: Findings from the China health and retirement longitudinal study. EClinicalMedicine. 2022;44:
101264 . DOI: 10.1016/j.eclinm.2021.101264 - Mo D, Zhang P, Zhang M, Dai H, Guan J. Cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein, and glucose index versus triglyceride-glucose index in predicting cardiovascular disease risk: A cohort study. Cardiovascular Diabetology. 2025;24(1):
116 . DOI: 10.1186/s12933-025-02675-y - Beretta L, Santaniello A. Nearest neighbor imputation algorithms: A critical evaluation. BMC Medical Informatics and Decision Making. 2016;16(Suppl 3):
74 . DOI: 10.1186/s12911-016-0318-z - Zhao E, Xie H, Zhang Y. Predicting diagnostic gene biomarkers associated with immune infiltration in patients with acute myocardial infarction. Frontiers in Cardiovascular Medicine. 2020;7:
586871 . DOI: 10.3389/fcvm.2020.586871 - Kursa MB, Rudnicki WR. Feature selection with the Boruta package. Journal of Statistical Software. 2010;36(11):1–13. DOI: 10.18637/jss.v036.i11
- Williams KV, Erbey JR, Becker D, Arslanian S, Orchard TJ. Can clinical factors estimate insulin resistance in type 1 diabetes? Diabetes. 2000;49(4):626–632. DOI: 10.2337/diabetes.49.4.626
- Zhang Z, Tan L. Association of insulin resistance-related indicators with cardiovascular disease in Chinese people with different glycemic states. Frontiers in Endocrinology. 2025;16:
1515559 . DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2025.1515559 - Zabala A, Darsalia V, Lind M, Svensson AM, Franzén S, Eliasson B, et al. Estimated glucose disposal rate and risk of stroke and mortality in type 2 diabetes: A nationwide cohort study. Cardiovascular Diabetology. 2021;20(1):
202 . DOI: 10.1186/s12933-021-01394-4 - Lu Z, Xiong Y, Feng X, Yang K, Gu H, Zhao X, et al. Insulin resistance estimated by estimated glucose disposal rate predicts outcomes in acute ischemic stroke patients. Cardiovascular Diabetology. 2023;22(1):
225 . DOI: 10.1186/s12933-023-01925-1 - Guo L, Zhang J, An R, Wang W, Fen J, Wu Y, et al. The role of estimated glucose disposal rate in predicting cardiovascular risk among general and diabetes mellitus population: A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Medicine. 2025;23(1):
234 . DOI: 10.1186/s12916-025-04064-4 - Bahrami Hezaveh E, Hashemi R, Noorafrooz M, Mohammadi F, Yadegar A, Karimpour Reyhan S, et al. Estimated glucose disposal rate: A potential determinant for microvascular and macrovascular complications in type 2 diabetes. Endocrinology, Diabetes & Metabolism. 2025;8(2):
e70037 . DOI: 10.1002/edm2.70037 - Adeva-Andany MM, Martínez-Rodríguez J, González-Lucán M, Fernández-Fernández C, Castro-Quintela E. Insulin resistance is a cardiovascular risk factor in humans. Diabetes & Metabolic Syndrome. 2019;13(2):1449–1455. DOI: 10.1016/j.dsx.2019.02.023
- Xia MF, Chen Y, Lin HD, Ma H, Li XM, Aleteng Q, et al. A indicator of visceral adipose dysfunction to evaluate metabolic health in adult Chinese. Scientific Reports. 2016;6:
38214 . DOI: 10.1038/srep38214 - Yang Y, Li S, Ren Q, Qiu Y, Pan M, Liu G, et al. The interaction between triglyceride-glucose index and visceral adiposity in cardiovascular disease risk: Findings from a nationwide Chinese cohort. Cardiovascular Diabetology. 2024;23(1):
427 . DOI: 10.1186/s12933-024-02518-2 - Liu L, Peng J, Zang D, Zhang Y, Wu Z, Song C, et al. The Chinese visceral adiposity index: A novel indicator more closely related to cardiovascular disease than other abdominal obesity indices among postmenopausal women. Journal of Translational Medicine. 2024;22(1):
855 . DOI: 10.1186/s12967-024-05665-y - Qiao T, Luo T, Pei H, Yimingniyazi B, Aili D, Aimudula A, et al. Association between abdominal obesity indices and risk of cardiovascular events in Chinese populations with type 2 diabetes: A prospective cohort study. Cardiovascular Diabetology. 2022;21(1):
225 . DOI: 10.1186/s12933-022-01670-x - Zhang Z, Zhao L, Lu Y, Meng X, Zhou X. Association between Chinese visceral adiposity index and risk of stroke incidence in middle-aged and elderly Chinese population: Evidence from a large national cohort study. Journal of Translational Medicine. 2023;21(1):
518 . DOI: 10.1186/s12967-023-04309-x - Shulman GI. Ectopic fat in insulin resistance, dyslipidemia, and cardiometabolic disease. The New England Journal of Medicine. 2014;371(12):1131–1141. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMra1011035
- Frigolet ME, Torres N, Tovar AR. The renin-angiotensin system in adipose tissue and its metabolic consequences during obesity. The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry. 2013;24(12):2003–2015. DOI: 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2013.07.002
- Lear SA, Humphries KH, Kohli S, Birmingham CL. The use of BMI and waist circumference as surrogates of body fat differs by ethnicity. Obesity. 2007;15(11):2817–2824. DOI: 10.1038/oby.2007.334
- Abu Alfeilat HA, Hassanat ABA, Lasassmeh O, Tarawneh AS, Alhasanat MB, Eyal Salman HS, et al. Effects of distance measure choice on K-nearest neighbor classifier performance: A review. Big Data. 2019;7(4):221–248. DOI: 10.1089/big.2018.0175
- Krittanawong C, Zhang H, Wang Z, Aydar M, Kitai T. Artificial intelligence in precision cardiovascular medicine. Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 2017;69(21):2657–2664. DOI: 10.1016/j.jacc.2017.03.571
- Boden G, Shulman GI. Free fatty acids in obesity and type 2 diabetes: defining their role in the development of insulin resistance and beta-cell dysfunction. European Journal of Clinical Investigation. 2002;32(Suppl 3):14–23. DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2362.32.s3.3.x
- Esser N, Legrand-Poels S, Piette J, Scheen AJ, Paquot N. Inflammation as a link between obesity, metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice. 2014;105(2):141–150. DOI: 10.1016/j.diabres.2014.04.006
- Vazzana N, Ranalli P, Cuccurullo C, Davì G. Diabetes mellitus and thrombosis. Thrombosis Research. 2012;129(3):371–377. DOI: 10.1016/j.thromres.2011.11.052
- Vaidya RA, Desai S, Moitra P, Salis S, Agashe S, Battalwar R, et al. Hyperinsulinemia: an early biomarker of metabolic dysfunction. Frontiers in Clinical Diabetes and Healthcare. 2023;4:
1159664 . DOI: 10.3389/fcdhc.2023.1159664 - Festa A, Williams K, Hanley AJ, Otvos JD, Goff DC, Wagenknecht LE, et al. Nuclear magnetic resonance lipoprotein abnormalities in prediabetic subjects in the Insulin Resistance Atherosclerosis Study. Circulation. 2005;111(25):3465–3472. DOI: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.104.512079
- Fiorentino TV, Prioletta A, Zuo P, Folli F. Hyperglycemia-induced oxidative stress and its role in diabetes mellitus related cardiovascular diseases. Current Pharmaceutical Design. 2013;19(32):5695–5703. DOI: 10.2174/1381612811319320005
- Stirban A, Gawlowski T, Roden M. Vascular effects of advanced glycation endproducts: Clinical effects and molecular mechanisms. Molecular Metabolism. 2014;3(2):94–108. DOI: 10.1016/j.molmet.2013.11.006
- Webb AJS, Werring DJ. New insights into cerebrovascular pathophysiology and hypertension. Stroke. 2022;53(4):1054–1064. DOI: 10.1161/STROKEAHA.121.035850
- Liu S, Li Y, Zeng X, Wang H, Yin P, Wang L, et al. Burden of cardiovascular diseases in China, 1990–2016: Findings from the 2016 Global Burden of Disease Study. JAMA Cardiology. 2019;4(4):342–352. DOI: 10.1001/jamacardio.2019.0295
